دانشگاه اصفهان پژوهش های تاریخی 2008-6253 18 3 2026 09 23 Political-Religious Themes and Functions of Graffiti in Medieval Iran with Emphasis on the 4th to 8th Centuries AH مضامین و کارکردهای سیاسی- مذهبی دیوارنویسی در ایران سده‌های میانه؛ با تأکید بر قرون چهارم تا هشتم هجری قمری 75 93 30585 10.22108/jhr.2026.148448.2917 FA امامعلی شعبانی دانشیار گروه تاریخ، دانشکده علوم انسانی و اجتماعی، دانشگاه مازندران، بابلسر، ایران فاطمه گنجیان مشهدسرایی دانشجوی کارشناسی ارشد گروه تاریخ، دانشکده علوم انسانی و اجتماعی، دانشگاه الزهرا، تهران، ایران Journal Article 2026 02 25 Abstract Graffiti (wall writing) constituted one of the most significant forms of mass communication in pre-modern societies, serving not only cultural and social functions, but also playing a pivotal role in the political and religious spheres. Adopting a descriptive-analytical approach and drawing on historical, literary, and geographical sources from the 4th to the 8th centuries AH (10th to 14th centuries CE), this study examined the political-religious themes and functions of wall writings in Iran and the territories associated with the Iranian cultural sphere. The central research question concerned the role that graffiti played in representing, transmitting, and consolidating political and religious concepts during this period. The findings indicated that wall writings were not merely a means of disseminating information; rather, as a public medium, they served to reflect sectarian conflicts, articulate political and religious stances, legitimize ruling authorities, delegitimize rivals, and mirror contemporary political events. An analysis of historical cases revealed that religious groups—particularly Shiites and Sunnis—employed graffiti to promote doctrinal beliefs, defend religious identity, and confront opposing factions. Likewise, governments and political actors utilized this tool to project power, reinforce authority, and shape public opinion. In conclusion, wall writings can be regarded as an integral component of the political and religious communication system in medieval Islamic society, which, alongside official sources, offers valuable insights into the intellectual, social, and political developments of the era. Keywords: Graffiti, Slogan Writing, Political Power, Legitimacy, Medieval Iranian History. Introduction As a form of propaganda and an effective medium, Graffiti has a history as long as human civilization itself and continues to play a role in our own time. By inscribing slogans on the walls of public or private spaces, individuals conveyed messages to society—messages that sometimes became the catalyst for significant social and political transformations. This efficacy stemmed largely from the fact that, in pre-modern times, the tools and means of mass communication available today did not exist. Graffiti thus served as a vehicle for expressing beliefs and viewpoints that encompassed political, religious, social, and even economic motivations. These inscriptions are observable throughout the urban landscape and in key centers of public interaction, including mosques, palaces, hospices (ribāṭs), caravanserais, schools, bathhouses, and similar communal spaces. Despite the significance of the subject, no independent study has thus far been devoted to it. Although a few essays have touched upon these wall writings, they have done so only in passing and the topic has never received sustained attention as a distinct research area. Among the limited existing works is the article "An Analysis of Graffiti in the Pirbakran Shrine in Isfahan from the Ilkhanid to the Qajar Period", which, while focusing on Pirbakran Shrine, merely presents a brief supplicatory inscription from the Ilkhanid era (Shahmandi & Shahidani, 2012/1391, p. 54). Another work is the book The Wall Writings of the Khargird School, which concentrates on this particular institution and the 9th century AH, yet addresses graffiti in Iranian history only in broad outline (Mashhadi Rafiʿ & Khezri, 2025, pp. 23–28). The entry "Wall Writings" in the Encyclopaedia of the World of Islam (Khaleqi Hamedani, 2010) remains general and very brief with its examples drawn primarily from recent centuries. A number of other studies have similarly focused solely on introducing the wall writings found at shrines and tombs of notable figures and mystics from the last few centuries (Khaleqi Hamedani, 2010, pp. 29–31). Analytical works, meanwhile, are mainly confined to articles and, more notably, are oriented toward wall writings related to the history of the Islamic Revolution. Among these, one may cite "A Study of Tendencies and Cross-Cultural Analysis of Graffiti: The Silent Discourse" (Tahririan & Moradi Moqaddam, 2014), "Wall Writings of the Islamic Revolution Era: A Study Based on the Linguistic Landscape Approach" (Qoli Famian, 2023), and "Revolutionary Graffiti: A Source for Deepening the Historiography of the Islamic Revolution" (Saberi, 2022)—the last of which, in a conspicuous error, traces the history of graffiti in Iran back only to the Constitutional era (Saberi, 2022, p. 171). Additionally, Fatemeh Mahmoudi Khoygani's thesis entitled "Propaganda and Its Role in the Sectarian and Religious Conflicts of Seljuk Iran" (2017) is limited to presenting a few pieces of data on Seljuk-era wall writings, themselves extracted from the historical sources of that period. In this context, the present inquiry sought to address the following question: what political-religious themes and functions did graffiti embody during the medieval centuries of Iranian history? To this end, the study adopted a descriptive-analytical approach. Materials & Methods This research examined the subject through a descriptive-analytical method, drawing on historical, literary, and geographical sources from the 4th to the 8th centuries AH (10th to 14th centuries CE) to investigate the political-religious themes and functions of wall writings in Iran and the territories falling within the Iranian cultural sphere. Research Findings The findings of this study demonstrated that the politico-religious functions of graffiti could be classified into 4 principal categories: first, reflection and intensification of sectarian conflicts between Shiites and Sunnis; second, declaration and propagation of the political and religious stances of governments, groups, and individuals; third, legitimization or delegitimization of political authority; and fourth, mirroring of contemporary political events, crises, and transformations. In this sense, walls served as an arena for the contestation of political and religious discourses—a space in which governments, elites, and social groups could project their desired narratives of power, religion, and society. Historical evidence further suggested that reactions to this medium of information dissemination—as well as propaganda and protest—were varied. On the one hand, the survival of certain wall writings and their subsequent citation in later centuries appeared to indicate a relative lack of political sensitivity toward them and even a degree of public tolerance for their continued presence. This was particularly noteworthy in cases where the inscriptions conveyed educational or moral messages intended for society at large, especially for the youth. However, in the case of politically or religiously charged slogans inscribed on the walls of public spaces, we encountered a much more intense and often violent response—ranging from sectarian disputes to outright armed conflict and bloodshed. Such confrontations sometimes occurred between rival factions or denominations, while governmental intervention at the macro level also played a significant role in either exacerbating or mitigating these tensions (for examples, see: Ibn Athīr, 1371/1992, vol. 20, pp. 256–257; Ibn Miskawayh, 1376/1997, vol. 5, p. 246; Ibn al-Jawzī, 1412, vol. 7, p. 7). In any case, the historical sources from this period frequently mentioned the writing and erasure of numerous wall inscriptions bearing political or religious themes. Moreover, we sometimes encountered a kind of interactive writing—such as question-and-answer exchanges or even marginal commentary inscribed directly on the walls. For instance, Abū al-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī referred to a wall inscription in Arabic lamenting the misfortunes of the age. He then added that, in the year 303 AH, someone wrote beneath it: "The one who writes these lines has himself become a wanderer from his homeland, yet by God's grace, he remains hopeful." More subtly still, another individual engraved below both of these: "You speak the truth, you speak the truth—and I am aware of it" (al-Iṣfahānī, 1972, pp. 31–32; see also similar examples, ibid., pp. 45–46, 82). Discussion of Results & Conclusion An examination of the historical evidence indicated that graffiti in the medieval Islamic centuries was neither a merely individual act nor simply a tool for recording public notes; rather, it constituted one of the most important unofficial media for the transmission of political and religious messages. The prevalence of this phenomenon in major cities and politico-religious centers—particularly during periods marked by sectarian rivalries, legitimacy crises, and widespread political upheaval—attested to the significance of wall writings in shaping public opinion and articulating social conflicts. The findings of this research demonstrated that the politico-religious functions of graffiti could be classified into 4 principal categories: first, reflection and intensification of sectarian conflicts between Shiites and Sunnis; second, declaration and propagation of the political and religious stances of governments, groups, and individuals; third, legitimization or delegitimization of political authority; and fourth, mirroring of contemporary political events, crises, and transformations. In this sense, walls served as an arena for the contestation of political and religious discourses—a space in which governments, elites, and social groups could project their desired narratives of power, religion, and society. This research further demonstrated that wall writings as part of the "public political culture" of society, offer researchers information that has not been reflected in many official sources. Consequently, the study of graffiti can play a significant role in reconstructing the social history, the history of political thought, and the history of religious relations in medieval Iran. Ultimately, graffiti should be regarded as one of the manifestations of political communication in pre-modern societies—which, despite its apparent simplicity, has exerted a considerable influence on the production, transmission, and reproduction of power and politico-religious identities. Drawing inspiration from the approaches of cultural history and political communication, the present study conceived of graffiti not merely as writing inscribed on building surfaces, but as a form of public medium in pre-modern societies. In an era when mass communication in the modern sense did not exist, the walls of mosques, schools, bazaars, cemeteries, and government buildings served as platforms for the transmission of political and religious messages. The findings of this research indicated that graffiti in medieval Islamic Iran must be regarded as a politico-religious medium that, in the absence of modern communication tools, has played a significant role in the circulation of information, shaping of public opinion, and representation of power relations. Walls have not been simply surfaces for recording texts; they have become an arena for the contestation of political and religious discourses—a space in which governments, scholars, religious groups, and political opponents have vied to place their desired narratives of religion, power, and society on public display. As such, wall writings can be considered part of the political communication system and the public culture of medieval societies. Their study enables a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of power, legitimacy, resistance, identity formation, and intellectual and political conflict. دیوارنویسی از مهم‌ترین شیوه‌های ارتباط‌جمعی در جوامع گذشته به‌ شمار می‌رفت که افزون‌بر کارکردهای فرهنگی و اجتماعی، در عرصه سیاست و مذهب نیز نقشی مؤثر ایفا می‌کرد. پژوهش حاضر با رویکردی توصیفی- تحلیلی و با تکیه بر منابع تاریخی، ادبی و جغرافیایی سده‌های چهارم تا هشتم هجری، به بررسی مضامین و کارکردهای سیاسی- مذهبی دیوارنوشته‌ها در ایران و سرزمین‌های مرتبط با حوزه تمدن ایرانی می‌پردازد. مسئله اصلی پژوهش آن است که دیوارنویسی در این دوره چه نقشی در بازنمایی، انتقال و تثبیت مفاهیم سیاسی و مذهبی داشته است. یافته‌های پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که دیوارنوشته‌ها صرفاً ابزار اطلاع‌رسانی نبوده‌اند، بلکه به‌عنوان رسانه‌ای عمومی در بازتاب منازعات فرقه‌ای، اعلان مواضع سیاسی و مذهبی، مشروعیت‌بخشی به حکومت‌ها، مشروعیت‌زدایی از رقیبان و انعکاس رویدادهای سیاسی ایفای نقش کرده‌اند. بررسی نمونه‌های تاریخی نشان می‌دهد که گروه‌های مذهبی، به‌ویژه شیعیان و اهل‌سنت، از دیوارنویسی برای ترویج باورهای اعتقادی، دفاع از هویت مذهبی و تقابل با جریان‌های رقیب بهره می‌بردند. همچنین حکومت‌ها و کنشگران سیاسی از این ابزار برای تبلیغ قدرت، تثبیت اقتدار و جهت‌دهی به افکار عمومی استفاده می‌کردند؛ در نتیجه، دیوارنوشته‌ها را می‌توان بخشی از نظام ارتباطات سیاسی و مذهبی در جامعه اسلامی سده‌های میانه دانست که در کنار منابع رسمی، تصویری ارزشمند از تحولات فکری، اجتماعی و سیاسی آن دوره ارائه می‌دهند.

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