University of Isfahan Historical Researches 2008-6253 18 2 2026 06 22 A Review and Criticism of Sīrah and History of Islam through the lens of Revisionist and moderate Orientalists, drawing upon the works "Hagarism" and "Muhammad and the Empire of Faith" A Review and Criticism of Sīrah and History of Islam through the lens of Revisionist and moderate Orientalists, drawing upon the works "Hagarism" and "Muhammad and the Empire of Faith" 1 14 30268 10.22108/jhr.2026.146164.2823 FA Behnam Nasr Isfahani Ph.D. student of Islamic History, Department of History, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran 0009-0009-9247-4169 Asghar Montazerolghaem Ph.D., Department of History, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Ali Akbar Kajbaf Ph.D., Department of History, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Journal Article 2025 07 29 Abstract In the realm of Orientalist scholarship, Islamic studies can be divided into two primary streams: revisionism and moderation. The book Hagarism co-authored by Crone and Cook represents a revisionist perspective, while Sean Anthony's Muhammad and the Empire of Faith adopts a more moderate stance. Both works aim to redefine the Prophet’s Sīrah and the history of Islam for contemporary audiences. This research employed a critical and analytical approach to library sources to re-evaluate the Sīrah and Islamic history from the viewpoints of both revisionist and moderate authors. It addressed the question: What differences and similarities emerge between Hagarism and Muhammad and the Empire of Faith in their redefinitions of the Sīrah and Islamic history? The study operated under the hypothesis that Hagarism as a critical intellectual trend utilized revisionist methodologies in Islamic historical studies, fostering an extreme and skeptical perspective towards Sīrah sources and Islamic history. This trend encompassed both Islamic and non-Islamic sources to construct new narratives. In contrast, Muhammad and the Empire of Faith offered a moderate examination of the Sīrah grounded in historical analysis of its sources. Keywords: Orientalists, Islamic Studies, Revisionist, Moderate, Sīrah and History of Islamic Research. Introduction Since their initial contact with the Islamic world, Western scholars have sought a deeper understanding of the history, culture, and civilization of the East and Islam. This interest has fostered the emergence of fields, such as Oriental studies and Islamic studies, in Europe. In the 9th and 10th centuries CE, European priests and translators engaged with the Islamic world, notably through their travels to Islamic Spain to study in schools. This interaction facilitated the examination and translation of significant Muslim scientific texts. However, non-specialist translators, such as Raymond Armar, often hindered this quest for knowledge. Their inaccurate translations and the proliferation of books filled with myths, distortions, and falsehoods about Islam and the Prophet contributed to the emergence of misleading narratives within Islamic studies. This situation underscored the need for accuracy and rigorous scrutiny in the field as it developed (Najī, 1981, pp. 86-90). Contemporary Islamic studies featured two prominent currents: revisionist and moderate (Rafie, 2017, p. 261). This research adopted an analytical and critical approach to re-examining the Sīrah of the Prophet and the history of Islam as presented in two key works: Hagarism and Muhammad and the Empire of Faith. The objective was to identify the differences and similarities between these two texts regarding the Sīrah and Islamic history. The present study explored varying approaches to Islamic history by comparing Hagarism and Muhammad and the Empire of Faith. The hypothesis posited that Hagarism offered an extreme and skeptical perspective on Islamic history reflective of the revisionist trend, whereas Muhammad and the Empire of Faith aimed to present a balanced and redefined portrayal of the Prophet Muhammad's Sīrah and Islamic history through a moderate lens. Materials & Methods This research employed a critical and analytical approach, utilizing library resources to examine the texts of two significant works in the field of Sīrah studies and Islamic history. It identified notable similarities and differences between the two books, which were discussed under the following headings: a) The study advocated for the incorporation of scientific data from non-Islamic contemporary historical sources pertaining to the Islamic period to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the era; b) It critiqued the perspective that considered the Sīrah (the traditions concerning the life of Prophet Muhammad) as an unreliable historical narrative; c) The research explored the contrasting views of "revisionists" and "moderates" in their evaluations of Islamic history; d) It also addressed the themes of Islamic culture and civilization. Research Findings The findings of this research revealed a prominent revisionist approach within the post-modern discourse of the book Hagarism. The authors of this work struggled to substantiate their claims with scientific evidence, resulting in a disorganized presentation of the Prophet's Sīrah and the history of Islam, largely due to a lack of necessary documentation. In contrast, Muhammad and the Empire of Faith offered a thorough exploration and comparative analysis of historical narratives concerning the Prophet's Sīrah. The author aimed to provide an accurate portrayal of Prophet Muhammad's life and the history of Islam while identifying shortcomings in existing studies, particularly regarding the presentation of Sīrah narrators and the incomplete integration of Shia thought. Shan Anthony's approach represented a novel and integrative framework in Islamic studies, emphasizing a synthesis of traditional and modern methodologies. Scholars advocated for a strategic approach to Islamic studies that embraced a dual perspective on both Sunni and Shia sources, as well as non-Islamic sources. This methodology involved a deep critique and analysis of these sources to foster more positive outcomes in the fields of Sīrah and Islamic history. Discussion of Results & Conclusion Since the initial contact between Europeans and the Islamic world, two prominent intellectual trends—extreme and moderate—have emerged within Islamic studies. Each of these currents possesses distinct characteristics and competes in the academic arena, striving to promote its perspectives through the publication of key works. Starting in the 1970s, as extremist activities intensified, a new movement emerged within this discourse, which was known as the "Revisionist Movement". This movement introduced radical, revisionist, and skeptical ideas, offering a novel approach to Islamic studies. Hagarism authored by Crone and Cook has become a seminal text in the realm of religious critique and represents a stark contrast to moderate approaches as it presents significant studies confronting innovative and modern skeptical viewpoints. In this context, Sean Anthony’s Muhammad and the Empire of Faith stands out as a valuable and influential work, aiming to present a clear and systematic portrayal of the Prophet Muhammad's life and conduct through an integrated study of the tradition. While the book has its shortcomings—particularly in its incomplete introduction to the tradition and its reliance on Shia sources for narratives of the Prophet’s wars—it nonetheless contributes significantly to the discourse. Reviews of Hagarism indicated that it was heavily influenced by post-modern discourse, to the extent that the authors often failed to substantiate their claims with scientific evidence. Consequently, the compilation of the Prophet's Sīrah and the history of Islam in this work appeared chaotic and lacking in proper documentation. In contrast, Sean Anthony’s approach to Islamic studies was both innovative and integrative, emphasizing the fusion of traditional and modern methods. Scholars advocated for a strategic perspective within Islamic studies that encompassed both Sunni and Shia sources, along with non-Islamic sources. This comprehensive approach entailed a deep critique and analysis of these sources to achieve more positive results in the fields of the Sīrah and Islamic history. Abstract In the realm of Orientalist scholarship, Islamic studies can be divided into two primary streams: revisionism and moderation. The book Hagarism co-authored by Crone and Cook represents a revisionist perspective, while Sean Anthony's Muhammad and the Empire of Faith adopts a more moderate stance. Both works aim to redefine the Prophet’s Sīrah and the history of Islam for contemporary audiences. This research employed a critical and analytical approach to library sources to re-evaluate the Sīrah and Islamic history from the viewpoints of both revisionist and moderate authors. It addressed the question: What differences and similarities emerge between Hagarism and Muhammad and the Empire of Faith in their redefinitions of the Sīrah and Islamic history? The study operated under the hypothesis that Hagarism as a critical intellectual trend utilized revisionist methodologies in Islamic historical studies, fostering an extreme and skeptical perspective towards Sīrah sources and Islamic history. This trend encompassed both Islamic and non-Islamic sources to construct new narratives. In contrast, Muhammad and the Empire of Faith offered a moderate examination of the Sīrah grounded in historical analysis of its sources. Keywords: Orientalists, Islamic Studies, Revisionist, Moderate, Sīrah and History of Islamic Research. Introduction Since their initial contact with the Islamic world, Western scholars have sought a deeper understanding of the history, culture, and civilization of the East and Islam. This interest has fostered the emergence of fields, such as Oriental studies and Islamic studies, in Europe. In the 9th and 10th centuries CE, European priests and translators engaged with the Islamic world, notably through their travels to Islamic Spain to study in schools. This interaction facilitated the examination and translation of significant Muslim scientific texts. However, non-specialist translators, such as Raymond Armar, often hindered this quest for knowledge. Their inaccurate translations and the proliferation of books filled with myths, distortions, and falsehoods about Islam and the Prophet contributed to the emergence of misleading narratives within Islamic studies. This situation underscored the need for accuracy and rigorous scrutiny in the field as it developed (Najī, 1981, pp. 86-90). Contemporary Islamic studies featured two prominent currents: revisionist and moderate (Rafie, 2017, p. 261). This research adopted an analytical and critical approach to re-examining the Sīrah of the Prophet and the history of Islam as presented in two key works: Hagarism and Muhammad and the Empire of Faith. The objective was to identify the differences and similarities between these two texts regarding the Sīrah and Islamic history. The present study explored varying approaches to Islamic history by comparing Hagarism and Muhammad and the Empire of Faith. The hypothesis posited that Hagarism offered an extreme and skeptical perspective on Islamic history reflective of the revisionist trend, whereas Muhammad and the Empire of Faith aimed to present a balanced and redefined portrayal of the Prophet Muhammad's Sīrah and Islamic history through a moderate lens. Materials & Methods This research employed a critical and analytical approach, utilizing library resources to examine the texts of two significant works in the field of Sīrah studies and Islamic history. It identified notable similarities and differences between the two books, which were discussed under the following headings: a) The study advocated for the incorporation of scientific data from non-Islamic contemporary historical sources pertaining to the Islamic period to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the era; b) It critiqued the perspective that considered the Sīrah (the traditions concerning the life of Prophet Muhammad) as an unreliable historical narrative; c) The research explored the contrasting views of "revisionists" and "moderates" in their evaluations of Islamic history; d) It also addressed the themes of Islamic culture and civilization. Research Findings The findings of this research revealed a prominent revisionist approach within the post-modern discourse of the book Hagarism. The authors of this work struggled to substantiate their claims with scientific evidence, resulting in a disorganized presentation of the Prophet's Sīrah and the history of Islam, largely due to a lack of necessary documentation. In contrast, Muhammad and the Empire of Faith offered a thorough exploration and comparative analysis of historical narratives concerning the Prophet's Sīrah. The author aimed to provide an accurate portrayal of Prophet Muhammad's life and the history of Islam while identifying shortcomings in existing studies, particularly regarding the presentation of Sīrah narrators and the incomplete integration of Shia thought. Shan Anthony's approach represented a novel and integrative framework in Islamic studies, emphasizing a synthesis of traditional and modern methodologies. Scholars advocated for a strategic approach to Islamic studies that embraced a dual perspective on both Sunni and Shia sources, as well as non-Islamic sources. This methodology involved a deep critique and analysis of these sources to foster more positive outcomes in the fields of Sīrah and Islamic history. Discussion of Results & Conclusion Since the initial contact between Europeans and the Islamic world, two prominent intellectual trends—extreme and moderate—have emerged within Islamic studies. Each of these currents possesses distinct characteristics and competes in the academic arena, striving to promote its perspectives through the publication of key works. Starting in the 1970s, as extremist activities intensified, a new movement emerged within this discourse, which was known as the "Revisionist Movement". This movement introduced radical, revisionist, and skeptical ideas, offering a novel approach to Islamic studies. Hagarism authored by Crone and Cook has become a seminal text in the realm of religious critique and represents a stark contrast to moderate approaches as it presents significant studies confronting innovative and modern skeptical viewpoints. In this context, Sean Anthony’s Muhammad and the Empire of Faith stands out as a valuable and influential work, aiming to present a clear and systematic portrayal of the Prophet Muhammad's life and conduct through an integrated study of the tradition. While the book has its shortcomings—particularly in its incomplete introduction to the tradition and its reliance on Shia sources for narratives of the Prophet’s wars—it nonetheless contributes significantly to the discourse. Reviews of Hagarism indicated that it was heavily influenced by post-modern discourse, to the extent that the authors often failed to substantiate their claims with scientific evidence. Consequently, the compilation of the Prophet's Sīrah and the history of Islam in this work appeared chaotic and lacking in proper documentation. In contrast, Sean Anthony’s approach to Islamic studies was both innovative and integrative, emphasizing the fusion of traditional and modern methods. Scholars advocated for a strategic perspective within Islamic studies that encompassed both Sunni and Shia sources, along with non-Islamic sources. This comprehensive approach entailed a deep critique and analysis of these sources to achieve more positive results in the fields of the Sīrah and Islamic history.

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