University of Isfahan Historical Researches 2008-6253 17 3 2025 09 23 The Status of the Mirza Class in the Iranian Khanate of the Caucasus (1760-1828) The Status of the Mirza Class in the Iranian Khanate of the Caucasus (1760-1828) 79 95 30002 10.22108/jhr.2025.146272.2831 FA Seyyed Ali Mazinani Assistant Professor, Department of History, Faculty of Persian Literature and Foreign Languages, Allameh Tabatab'i University, Tehran, Iran Journal Article 2025 08 18 Abstract The Khanates that emerged in the Caucasus after the death of Nadir Shah (1747) up to the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) lacked the stability and continuity required to develop their own governmental traditions. In fact, these entities were largely modeled on various aspects of the Safavid state. The central aim of this study is to elucidate the role of the Mirza in these Khanates. To achieve this objective, the paper adopts a descriptive approach to examine the contribution of the Mirza class to the administration of the Khanates from multiple perspectives. The text first discusses the significance of the Persian language in the Persianate Khanates of the Caucasus and subsequently explores the influence of Iran on their systems of knowledge—from the Safavid period to the late Qajar era. The following sections investigate the status and administrative roles of the Mirza, their duties, and the methods of remuneration for their services. Finally, the paper highlights the involvement of the Mirza class in the transition of sovereignty from the Persian Khanates to the Russian Empire. Keywords: Caucasus, Iran, Bureaucracy, Mirza, Khanate, Tax, Persian Language. Introduction In the study of the Iranian Khanates of the Caucasus during the 12th and 13th centuries A.H. (18th–19th centuries C.E.), the field of research has yet to expand sufficiently to encompass their social, economic, political, and administrative structures. The vast linguistic diversity of the region often hinders scholars’ efforts to conduct comprehensive studies. Furthermore, the anonymity or limited accessibility of archival sources preserved in Iran, Russia, and Turkey has contributed to this deficiency. To a considerable extent, the region’s position as a buffer zone in the conflicts among Iran, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire has led to its recognition mainly as a battlefield rather than as a subject deserving independent investigation. To date, only two significant studies have dealt specifically with the Khanates. The first is A Study on Feudal Relationships in Azerbaijan and Armenia from the 16th to the Beginning of the 19th Century by Ilia Petroshevskii (1949), which provides valuable information on the Iranian Khanates of the Caucasus. However, its principal shortcoming lies in its adherence to the Stalinist historiographical framework, which aimed to reinforce the newly fabricated identity of the Azerbaijani Republic and to incorporate all the territories of Arran and Shirvan into it. The second major work is The Khanate of Erevan under the Qajar Rule: 1795–1828 by George A. Bournoutian, an extensive and methodologically sound study that explores the social, political, economic, and administrative aspects of the region. This research, which originated as Bournoutian’s Ph.D. dissertation in 1974 and culminated in its final publication in 1992, remains one of the most comprehensive accounts of the administrative structure of the Erevan Khanate and serves as a valuable model for studying other Khanates. Nevertheless, the origin, role, and income of the Mirza class were not addressed as an independent topic in that work, leaving a gap that still awaits systematic scholarly investigation. Materials and Methods To achieve this goal, the present study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach aimed at outlining the contribution of the Mirza class in the administration of the Khanates from various perspectives. This method enables a systematic review of the historical sources, tracing the Mirzas’ administrative, educational, and fiscal roles within the socio-political framework of the Iranian Khanates of the Caucasus. Research Findings This study seeks to fill the existing research gap, and its findings can be summarized as follows: The administrative structure of the Iranian Khanates of the Caucasus was essentially a scaled-down replica of the Safavid bureaucracy. Unsurprisingly, Persian remained the dominant language of governance and elite communication in the Khanates well into the twentieth century. Moreover, the region’s educational system followed the Iranian model: students received their elementary education locally and then attended madrasas in cities such as Rasht, Ardabil, Qom, and Isfahan. Those who aspired to attain the rank of mujtahid continued their studies in Shiite howzeh seminaries in Iraq. The educational curriculum of the Khanates was heavily influenced by classical Persian texts such as Tarassol, Jame'-e Abbasi, and Kaskol-e Sheikh Bahai. Among the graduates of madrasas and howzeh schools, some entered the religious hierarchy, while the majority preferred administrative careers as Mirzas. A number of these graduates attended the Diwan-e Shahi (Royal Chancery) in Ardabil, where they received specialized training designed to develop competent bureaucrats. The Mirza class could ultimately serve in various governmental departments—including the chancery, the court, and religious offices—or in private enterprises, where elites managed tax farming of public revenues or the Khan’s estates under fixed contracts. A Mirza was expected to demonstrate proficiency in several areas: elegant poetry, mastery of the Siaqat script, negotiation and diplomatic skills, knowledge of astronomy for auspicious timing, and at times even military leadership. Two principal modes of remuneration were common for Mirzas. The first involved levying specific and regular taxes such as Mizayane, Qoluqi/Tahvilani/Khendmatane, Vazirlik, Tornakilik, Rusum, Bazarlik, and Jawalpoli. The second method entailed granting land—either in the form of toyul (fief) or molk (private property)—from the rural or pastoral holdings of the Khan. Consequently, the annual income of a senior Mirza seldom fell below 500 rubles. Following the decline of the Iranian Khanates of the Caucasus, some Mirzas accompanied their patrons in exile to Iran, while others who remained in their homeland offered their services to the Russian administration. The latter group served Russia in two crucial ways: first, by transferring administrative and fiscal records into Russian hands to facilitate efficient taxation and revenue collection; and second, by compiling historical accounts of the Khanates at the request of Russian officials, thereby providing their new rulers with a historical understanding of the recently conquered territories. Discussion of Results and Conclusion Following the collapse of Safavid rule in 1721, the Caucasian provinces were plunged into a period of political uncertainty, compounded by the military incursions of the Ottoman and Russian empires and the centrifugal ambitions of local magnates. Despite this political instability, most social institutions within this region of the Persianate world remained intact and functional. In the sphere of bureaucracy, the Mirza class successfully preserved its administrative role, largely due to the deeply rooted bureaucratic traditions inherited from Iranian models of statecraft and chancery administration. The local Mirzas of the Caucasus typically received their education in major Iranian cities such as Rasht, Qom, Isfahan, and Kerman, or within local institutions that followed the Iranian educational curriculum. When assigned official duties, these bureaucrats carried out their work entirely in Persian, within an administrative framework that was fundamentally shaped by the Persian language and bureaucratic norms. Furthermore, the Mirzas’ hierarchical ranks, privileges, and sources of income were modeled on the Iranian chancery system, reflecting the continuity of Persian bureaucratic culture across the region. This Persianate administrative legacy persisted up until the eve of the annexation of the Caucasus by the Russian Empire in 1828. Following annexation, the Russian authorities deliberately sought to suppress Iranian cultural and administrative influence throughout the newly conquered territories. Abstract The Khanates that emerged in the Caucasus after the death of Nadir Shah (1747) up to the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) lacked the stability and continuity required to develop their own governmental traditions. In fact, these entities were largely modeled on various aspects of the Safavid state. The central aim of this study is to elucidate the role of the Mirza in these Khanates. To achieve this objective, the paper adopts a descriptive approach to examine the contribution of the Mirza class to the administration of the Khanates from multiple perspectives. The text first discusses the significance of the Persian language in the Persianate Khanates of the Caucasus and subsequently explores the influence of Iran on their systems of knowledge—from the Safavid period to the late Qajar era. The following sections investigate the status and administrative roles of the Mirza, their duties, and the methods of remuneration for their services. Finally, the paper highlights the involvement of the Mirza class in the transition of sovereignty from the Persian Khanates to the Russian Empire. Keywords: Caucasus, Iran, Bureaucracy, Mirza, Khanate, Tax, Persian Language. Introduction In the study of the Iranian Khanates of the Caucasus during the 12th and 13th centuries A.H. (18th–19th centuries C.E.), the field of research has yet to expand sufficiently to encompass their social, economic, political, and administrative structures. The vast linguistic diversity of the region often hinders scholars’ efforts to conduct comprehensive studies. Furthermore, the anonymity or limited accessibility of archival sources preserved in Iran, Russia, and Turkey has contributed to this deficiency. To a considerable extent, the region’s position as a buffer zone in the conflicts among Iran, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire has led to its recognition mainly as a battlefield rather than as a subject deserving independent investigation. To date, only two significant studies have dealt specifically with the Khanates. The first is A Study on Feudal Relationships in Azerbaijan and Armenia from the 16th to the Beginning of the 19th Century by Ilia Petroshevskii (1949), which provides valuable information on the Iranian Khanates of the Caucasus. However, its principal shortcoming lies in its adherence to the Stalinist historiographical framework, which aimed to reinforce the newly fabricated identity of the Azerbaijani Republic and to incorporate all the territories of Arran and Shirvan into it. The second major work is The Khanate of Erevan under the Qajar Rule: 1795–1828 by George A. Bournoutian, an extensive and methodologically sound study that explores the social, political, economic, and administrative aspects of the region. This research, which originated as Bournoutian’s Ph.D. dissertation in 1974 and culminated in its final publication in 1992, remains one of the most comprehensive accounts of the administrative structure of the Erevan Khanate and serves as a valuable model for studying other Khanates. Nevertheless, the origin, role, and income of the Mirza class were not addressed as an independent topic in that work, leaving a gap that still awaits systematic scholarly investigation. Materials and Methods To achieve this goal, the present study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach aimed at outlining the contribution of the Mirza class in the administration of the Khanates from various perspectives. This method enables a systematic review of the historical sources, tracing the Mirzas’ administrative, educational, and fiscal roles within the socio-political framework of the Iranian Khanates of the Caucasus. Research Findings This study seeks to fill the existing research gap, and its findings can be summarized as follows: The administrative structure of the Iranian Khanates of the Caucasus was essentially a scaled-down replica of the Safavid bureaucracy. Unsurprisingly, Persian remained the dominant language of governance and elite communication in the Khanates well into the twentieth century. Moreover, the region’s educational system followed the Iranian model: students received their elementary education locally and then attended madrasas in cities such as Rasht, Ardabil, Qom, and Isfahan. Those who aspired to attain the rank of mujtahid continued their studies in Shiite howzeh seminaries in Iraq. The educational curriculum of the Khanates was heavily influenced by classical Persian texts such as Tarassol, Jame'-e Abbasi, and Kaskol-e Sheikh Bahai. Among the graduates of madrasas and howzeh schools, some entered the religious hierarchy, while the majority preferred administrative careers as Mirzas. A number of these graduates attended the Diwan-e Shahi (Royal Chancery) in Ardabil, where they received specialized training designed to develop competent bureaucrats. The Mirza class could ultimately serve in various governmental departments—including the chancery, the court, and religious offices—or in private enterprises, where elites managed tax farming of public revenues or the Khan’s estates under fixed contracts. A Mirza was expected to demonstrate proficiency in several areas: elegant poetry, mastery of the Siaqat script, negotiation and diplomatic skills, knowledge of astronomy for auspicious timing, and at times even military leadership. Two principal modes of remuneration were common for Mirzas. The first involved levying specific and regular taxes such as Mizayane, Qoluqi/Tahvilani/Khendmatane, Vazirlik, Tornakilik, Rusum, Bazarlik, and Jawalpoli. The second method entailed granting land—either in the form of toyul (fief) or molk (private property)—from the rural or pastoral holdings of the Khan. Consequently, the annual income of a senior Mirza seldom fell below 500 rubles. Following the decline of the Iranian Khanates of the Caucasus, some Mirzas accompanied their patrons in exile to Iran, while others who remained in their homeland offered their services to the Russian administration. The latter group served Russia in two crucial ways: first, by transferring administrative and fiscal records into Russian hands to facilitate efficient taxation and revenue collection; and second, by compiling historical accounts of the Khanates at the request of Russian officials, thereby providing their new rulers with a historical understanding of the recently conquered territories. Discussion of Results and Conclusion Following the collapse of Safavid rule in 1721, the Caucasian provinces were plunged into a period of political uncertainty, compounded by the military incursions of the Ottoman and Russian empires and the centrifugal ambitions of local magnates. Despite this political instability, most social institutions within this region of the Persianate world remained intact and functional. In the sphere of bureaucracy, the Mirza class successfully preserved its administrative role, largely due to the deeply rooted bureaucratic traditions inherited from Iranian models of statecraft and chancery administration. The local Mirzas of the Caucasus typically received their education in major Iranian cities such as Rasht, Qom, Isfahan, and Kerman, or within local institutions that followed the Iranian educational curriculum. When assigned official duties, these bureaucrats carried out their work entirely in Persian, within an administrative framework that was fundamentally shaped by the Persian language and bureaucratic norms. Furthermore, the Mirzas’ hierarchical ranks, privileges, and sources of income were modeled on the Iranian chancery system, reflecting the continuity of Persian bureaucratic culture across the region. This Persianate administrative legacy persisted up until the eve of the annexation of the Caucasus by the Russian Empire in 1828. Following annexation, the Russian authorities deliberately sought to suppress Iranian cultural and administrative influence throughout the newly conquered territories.

https://jhr.ui.ac.ir/article_30002_16291e82508e36a37361b444fff21345.pdf