Journal of Historical Researches

Schools and Newspapers in Zanjan in the Constitutional Era: Challenges and Obstacles

Abbas Ghadimi gheydari; Hasan Rostami

Volume 14, Issue 3 , September 2022, , Pages 1-24

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2022.132519.2319

Abstract

Abstract In the Qajar era, manifestations of the new civilization were first established in the centers of modernity such as Tehran and Tabriz. Despite numerous obstacles, it gradually ... Read More Abstract In the Qajar era, manifestations of the new civilization were first established in the centers of modernity such as Tehran and Tabriz. Despite numerous obstacles, it gradually reached other provinces. From institutions and new manifestations, we can name the school and the newspaper that had a great impact on the social and intellectual transformation of the society. In the city of Zanjan, the manifestations of civilization were created with delay despite the fact that this city is located between the two important centers of Tehran and Tabriz. It was due to the social, political, and cultural creation of Zanjan. However, gradually new institutions impress their influence on Zanjan society among some classes and groups. This issue has not yet been the subject of an independent study and its vacancy is felt in studies on the process of establishing the manifestations of a new civilization in different provinces. In this regard, the present study seeks to examine the establishment of schools with newspapers and newspaper reading and those who try this path by explaining the obstacles, difficulties, effects, and results. According to the research claim, due to the relatively free conditions of the Mozaffari era and the cooperation of the executive elements of the government with the reformists, new manifestations were established in Zanjan and were accompanied by some successes. But the competition of the scholars in form of opposing groups that affected different strata created serious obstacles for new institutions and those interested in new manifestations. This study deals with the issue using a descriptive-explanatory method, relying on original sources, newspapers, and archival and family documents. Introduction During the long wars with Tsarist Russia, the need to acquire new knowledge of the west led to the emergence of the idea of reform and the entry of civilized institutions into Iran. The influence of civilization institutions began in the important state of Azerbaijan and reached Tehran during the Nasseri era through a historical process and caused a change in the thinking and discourse of the elites on various issues of the society. Although the Khamseh area of Zanjan as its center was located in the middle of the cities of modernity, the achievements of European civilization reached this city much later than other places. In the Mozaffari era, it enjoyed some civilized institutions. During this period, with the efforts of government agents and the cooperation of people such as Ali Asghar Mushir al-Mamalek, Sheikh Ibrahim Zanjani, and other interested people, schools and newspapers became popular. In this direction, despite these efforts, there were objections from some classes and social groups and the issue of education and the spread of the newspaper as two important factors in the awakening and awareness of different classes faced serious obstacles. However, the study of these new manifestations and institutions has been carried out in historical investigations and studies of focal cities such as Tehran, Tabriz, and other important places. However, a careful study of the current modernity and the causes and factors of constitutional events in different parts of the country requires a historical study of how smaller cities and areas deal with these new institutions. The main issue of this research is to investigate the establishment of institutions and manifestations of civilization in the Qajar era in Zanjan and also the obstacles and difficulties against them. The two main questions of the research are: in what context and how were the manifestations of civilization institutions established in Zanjan in this era? And what were the results of the challenges and obstacles? The study has not been independently researched based on documents archival and newly found documents. Following this issue, if we want to mention the research background in this subject, we should mention some books and articles such as "Study of political and social changes in Zanjan from the Constitutional Revolution to the end of the First World War" by Hossein Khamsei which, without referring to archival and family documents and original sources such as newspapers, the author has paid attention to the constitutional events of Zanjan by repeating the contents of public sources. This mere repetition does not offer new content to readers. The local quarterly magazine has published articles on the constitutional events in Zanjan, including "A Look at the Situation in Zanjan in the Constitutional Revolution" by Ramin Soltani, "A Look at the Life and Political Thought of Mulla Qurban Ali" by Yousef Khanmohammadi, "Parts of the Constitutional Revolution and Adventures from Zanjan that day" by Zabihullah Shahmohammadi, "An investigation into the events in Zanjan in the constitutional movement" by Tavakol Jafari, and "Mirza Abdullah Mojahed and the story of the Zanjan Constitutional Revolution" by Bahman Khatibi which have been published in issues 5, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, and 43 of the mentioned quarterly, respectively. "An Overview on the History of the First Public High School for Boys in Zanjan (Pahlavi High School)" was also published by Farajullah Davoodi and Abdulaziz Ghaemi. While briefly referring to schools such as Kamalieh and Homayouni in the Qajar era, they have discussed the establishment of the first public high school in Zanjan during the first Pahlavi period. Therefore, the subject of these articles is mainly political events and sometimes a brief reference to manifestations of the new civilization based on public content, and often doesn’t contain new findings and points. This study for the first time has investigated the issue by examining the original sources, newspapers of the Qajar era, and new archival and family documents. Materials and Methods In this study, by examining the original sources such as books and manuscripts, newspapers of the Qajar era, and new archival and family documents of this period, the authors try to study the issue of the establishment of schools and newspapers in Zanjan using a descriptive-explanatory method. Discussion of Results and Conclusions The scholars, the most important group in the Zanjan society of the Qajar era, became a serious obstacle against the arrival of the manifestations of the new era with the advent of some prominent elements. Although in the period of Naseraddin Shah Qajar, some manifestations of the new era were opposed to Zanjan, conditions were provided for implementing new ideas in the period of Mozaffari, due to the relative freedom of the society and the interaction of rulers such as Vazirhomayoun with cultural enthusiasts. Prior to Vazirhomayoun’s arrival in Zanjan, the city activists in the field of culture were trying to establish new institutions such as the school. For this purpose, the Kamalieh School was established. In order to further realize and continue this idea, Vazirhomayoun took an important step in creating a strong base for the implementation of his policies by using the competition of influential scholars and being close to a rival faction (Mirza Abolmakarem Mousavi). The continuous cooperation of various groups and activists in the field of culture with the era newspaper, the effort to revive the new educational system and the learning of students, and the use of newspapers as a powerful information tool to explain Zanjan constitutional events to power centers soon led to success in academic exams. Zanjani’s interest and awareness were in taking advantage of the manifestations and new civilization institutions. These short-term results reached full stability and longevity when influential elements and political groups in Zanjan society abandoned the fragmentation, insights, and conflicting activities in the context of constitutionalism. What is clear is that the great scholars who opposed the constitution such as Mullah Qurbanali did not oppose the school and the newspaper. But due to austerity and being confined at home, they were far from the developments of the new era and unaware of the evolving society of the late Qajar era. However, the desire of the trans-regional activists and forces was to focus on the fundamental changes in Zanjan by establishing schools and newspapers. But group and political considerations have damaged the results of these efforts. In the years after the constitutions, Seyyed Mohammad Mousavi, a pro-constitutional cleric, after reaching the religious leadership of the city, ignored the demands of the lower class and complained to the press and Mirza Aliasghar Mushir al-Mamalek during the constitutional years. He selected a party in response to the events in Zanjan. It should be noted that Mirza Mahmoud, one of the distinguished students of Zanjan schools, in spite of learning religious sciences in the guise of a clergyman as a source of imitation in the Pahlavi period, paid attention to religious sciences. Thus, although the efforts of the custodians of the institutions of civilization were successful in the short term, the long-term results showed the failure of these reforms in Zanjan. This failure showed that despite the efforts of cultural activists and reformist agents, the traditional insight among the various classes and groups in Zanjan has been a great and serious obstacle to the institutions of the new age.

The Transformation of the Political Discourse of the Fourth National Front from Constitutionalism to Republicanism

Mohammadhosein Ayoubian; Hojjat Fallah Tootkar; Abdorrafi Rahimi

Volume 14, Issue 3 , September 2022, , Pages 75-92

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2022.132375.2316

Abstract

Abstract Although after the uprising of June 6th, 1963 republican tendencies, influenced by the first National Front of Iran under the leadership of Dr. Hossein Fatemi, were seen ... Read More Abstract Although after the uprising of June 6th, 1963 republican tendencies, influenced by the first National Front of Iran under the leadership of Dr. Hossein Fatemi, were seen among some members of the National Front of Iran, such as Abolhassan Bani Sadr and Dariush Forouhar, the dominant discourse of the Fourth National Front from its establishment in 1977 until the last few months of the Pahlavi regime was ‘constitutionalism and support for the constitution’. In the last months leading up to the 1979 revolution, this discourse moved toward republicanism and overthrow. To understand this process, we directly interpreted the statements, speeches of the leaders, and the articles of the publication of the National Front organization using the textual discourse analysis method. In this method, the parameters related to the discourses of legalism, revolution, overthrow, republicanism, constitutionalism, etc. have been explored. Based on the results, this change in the discourse of the National Front took place gradually, and the National Front of Iran evolved from an intra-governmental opposition to a group opposed to the establishment of the regime, with a three-point declaration in Paris in November 1978. However, some contradictions can be seen in the discourse of the National Front during this period, which is mostly due to political and partisan interests. Introduction The Fourth National Front was one of the groups present during the Islamic Revolution that, like its predecessors (i.e. the First to Third National Fronts) and unlike some other extremist currents, did not have a revolutionary attitude and method, and all of its struggles were committed within the framework of the constitution of the time until a few months before the Islamic Revolution. Over time, however, its discourse and commitment to the constitutional monarchy changed. This change in discourse is considered the result of the signed three-point statement by the leader of the National Front, Karim Sanjabi, and Ayatollah Khomeini, the leader of the staunch opponents of the regime, after their meeting in Paris on November 5, 1978. The question, however, is whether this shift in the National Front discourse from constitutionalism to overthrow and the tendency towards republicanism was formed as quickly as the leader’s statement in Paris. Did all the real and legal (juridical) agents and members of the National Front at the time abandon constitutionalism and become republicans? The present study hypothesizes that this change took shape slowly over the course of a few months and manifested itself in the Paris Declaration. The most important studies close to the subject of this study are two separate articles by Dr. Alireza Mollai Tavani and Ms. Farideh Bavarian, which have studied the relationship between the National Front and the revolutionary religious movement in two separate periods, from its establishment up to the Paris Declaration and then to the Islamic Revolution. Their titles are respectively: "A Study of the National Front's association with the Islamic Revolution from open political space to meeting with Imam Khomeini" and "An Analysis of Political Behavior of the 4th National Front in Developments Resulting in the Victory of Islamic Revolution (November to February 1978)". However, the purpose of the authors of the current study is to examine this discourse change and the circumstances around its occurrence differently by using the study of the discourse of the group leaders, official statements, and announcements of the Front and of course their official organization (the National Front newsletter), from the manifestation of its three main leaders (Karim Sanjabi, Shapur Bakhtiar, and Dariush Forouhar) on June 12, 1977, until the fall of the monarchy and the victory of the Islamic Revolution on February 11, 1979. Materials and Methods The method of this research is the direct interpretation of the statements, speeches of the leaders, and the articles of the publication of the organization of the National Front by the method of textual discourse analysis. In this method, the parameters related to the discourses of legalism, revolution, overthrow, republicanism, constitutionalism, etc. have been explored. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Based on the study of how the position of the Fourth National Front changed, we conclude that the transformation of the discourse of the Fourth National Front from ‘constitution and constitutionalism’ to ‘overthrow and republicanism’ was a gradual change. This gradual change can be seen in all three parts of the study (the statements of the National Front, the speeches of the leaders of the National Front, and the publication of the newsletter of the National Front). The constant policy of the nationalist current in Iran was to defend the full implementation of the constitution and constitutionalism, but in a situation where the legitimacy of this constitution in the public sphere was decreasing day by day, the National Front also decided to coordinate itself with the events of the time. This was in order to keep up with the developments and provide a foothold in the post-revolution era. However, it was not easy to predict the course of events. Considering that their positions had changed since November 1978, being cautious and the use of ambiguous and multi-interpretable words in their discourse are abundant.

Organizing the Endowment System and its Educational Goals in the First Pahlavi Era

Mehdi Abbasi; Reza Shajari qasemkheili; Seyed Hassan Shojaee divkalaee

Volume 14, Issue 2 , May 2022, , Pages 89-105

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2022.132285.2312

Abstract

Abstract The issue of endowment (waqf) is one of the most important issues in the history of Islamic Iran. This importance stems from its impact on various religious, political, ... Read More Abstract The issue of endowment (waqf) is one of the most important issues in the history of Islamic Iran. This importance stems from its impact on various religious, political, social, and economic aspects. Therefore, in the history of Iran, governments have always tried to interfere in the affairs of endowments. The first Pahlavi government also followed the same method. This government made fundamental changes in endowment affairs, as in other areas including political, economic, social, and cultural structures of Iran in the Qajar era. The present study aims to answer the question of: How was the endowment affairs organized in the first Pahlavi era and what were its educational goals? The historical method and archival documents, publications, and other historical sources were used in this study. The findings show that the Pahlavi government during a ten-year process, through the approval of new laws, was succeeded in organizing endowments and making changes in that area with the aim of quantitatively and qualitatively developing the country’s educational system. This goal was achieved by using endowments and spending the proceeds of endowments in the fields of construction (construction of educational buildings), education (promotion of education and provision of educational resources), and publishing books. Introduction The issue of endowment in the history of Iran has been considered since ancient times. With the rise of Islam and its widespread emphasis on endowment and benevolence, its functions and uses increased. The importance and credibility of the endowment institution in Iran are such that some people believe that the correct recognition of the Iranian court is not possible without accurate recognition of the endowment institution. In the Qajar era, with the increase of political and religious influence of the clergy, the power of the clergy in managing the spiritual and financial affairs of the endowments was restored and despite the efforts in the Naseri and constitutional era, the power and influence of the Ulama over endowment affairs remained until the end of this period. So, the first Pahlavi government inherited the structure of the Qajar government in endowment affairs. This structure of the endowment system was not favorable in the first Pahlavi government for various reasons. That's why the Pahlavi government, after consolidating the foundations of its power, sought to organize endowment affairs for its goals. Explaining the evolution of the endowment system and analyzing the educational goals of Reza Shah are the most important concerns of this study. Materials and Methods This study aims to answer the question of: How was the endowment affairs organized in the first Pahlavi era and what were its educational goals? To gather the data, the historical method and archival documents, publications, and other historical sources were used in this study. Discussion of Results and Conclusions One of the goals of the first Pahlavi government was to achieve political centralization. Creating a bureaucracy and training an efficient bureaucrat was one of the necessary institutions and tools for creating political centralization. According to this principle, bureaucracy and its development as the tools to create political concentration were considered by the first Pahlavi government. The realization of this issue depended on the development of the country's educational system. The development of the educational system also required the provision of financial resources. It was not possible to finance these expenses only through the annual budget of the Ministry of Education. For this reason, the Pahlavi government had to seek other financial resources to cover the expenses of the country's educational system. One of these sources was the income from endowments. Accordingly, the Pahlavi government tried to organize the endowment system of the country and finally succeeded in approving the endowment law in 1313 AH. In this way, it would provide the necessary financial resources to achieve its goals. However, before approving this law, the Pahlavi government tried to use the revenues of endowments in the development of the country's educational system. This process intensified after approving the Endowment Law. After that, the Pahlavi government organized the endowments in a purposeful manner and sought to use the endowments and their revenues in the field of educational development. Endowment and its revenues were used in three parts including construction, educational expenses, and publishing books. In the construction expenditures part, the Pahlavi government acted in two fields of building schools in endowment fields and constructing schools from endowment revenues. In the field of educational expenditures, endowments and incomes were used in some ways including the provision of teachers' salaries, the provision of tuition, accommodation expenses for students, and the establishment of a preaching institute. In addition, the Pahlavi government published some books and established libraries from endowments revenues. Thus, the first Pahlavi government succeeded in organizing the country's endowment system to take steps towards achieving its goals by using endowment and its revenues in the development of the country's educational system. The most important of these goals was to train the necessary force to create an efficient bureaucratic system in order to create a political concentration in the country.

A New Interpretation of the Political Relations between Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar and Zaman Shah Durrani

Yaghoub Khazaei

Volume 14, Issue 1 , April 2022, , Pages 41-56

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2022.130823.2261

Abstract

AbstractDifferent and conflicting opinions have been expressed about the political relations between Agha Mohammad Khan and Zaman Shah. According to contemporary Afghan scholars, Zaman ... Read More AbstractDifferent and conflicting opinions have been expressed about the political relations between Agha Mohammad Khan and Zaman Shah. According to contemporary Afghan scholars, Zaman Shah was assumed to be an independent king with a realm beyond its realm. Thus, they have provided a specific interpretation of some of his political actions such as sending an ambassador to Tehran and corresponding with Agha Mohammad Khan. In contrast, a significant number of Iranian scholars consider Zaman Shah to be merely a local ruler that has attempted to separate parts of Iranian territory. The main purpose of this study is to critically evaluate these narratives and reach a new interpretation of these relationships. In this perspective, the narration of the Qajar and Durrani sources on the issue of Khorasan, the borders of the two sides on the side of Khorasan, and the exchange of ambassadors are examined. One of the main questions is, as a significant number of scholars have stated, is the following: Can the relations between Agha Mohammad Khan and Zaman Shah be evaluated on the basis of the Sultan governor model? In the present study, Durrani and Qajar narratives have been compared simultaneously using a comparative method. Based on such comparative method, we believe that Ahmad Shah, as one of the leaders of Nader Shah's army and his grandson Zaman Shah, like Agha Mohammad Khan, sought to gain power in Iran not separating it from the motherland. It is assumed here that that Zaman Shah did not seek to separate any part from the territory of Iran and the events of the following decades and the British colonial policies should not be related to the Durians retrospectively. As such, in some cases, our interpretation of events is based on subsequent events and not on the events themselves and the persons involved in the event.IntroductionAfter the assassination of Nader Shah Afshar, his fledgling government quickly collapsed and members of the family and the commanders of his army fought with each other for power. In the meantime, Ahmad Khan Abdali, one of the commanders of Nader, succeeded in forming a government in the eastern regions of Iran and parts of India. This action of the former general Nader Shah later took on other meanings. This means that Ahmad Khan himself had the intention and motive to separate some parts from his homeland. But like other commanders, he was just trying to gain power. However, later the course of events took place in such a way that a co-government called Afghanistan was formed with the intervention of the British. Had Durrans conquered all of Iran, would we interpret the behavior of Ahmad Shah and Zaman Shah in its current form? It seems that sometimes our interpretation of events is based on subsequent events. In the present study, the relations between Zaman Shah and Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar are reconsidered with regard to the intentions and behaviors of the actors of that time.Materials and MethodsIn the present study, Durrani and Qajar narratives have been compared simultaneously using a comparative method. The main problem in previous studies has been the lack of a comparative method as the focus of Iranian researchers on Qajar sources and the focus of Afghan researchers on Durrani sources; therefore, the narration of each of the parties has been known in advance.Discussion of Results and Conclusions The historiography of the Durians and Afghans on the one hand and the Qajars on the other has been more realistic about the relations between the two kings in the past than today and despite the passing of time, biased narratives and interpretations have penetrated historiography in order to preserve national interests. If history is subject to politics, then, not the events themselves, but the past and present interests of governments and nations would determine the trajectory, analysis, and explanation of events. The present study exposes erroneous narratives, scholars' misconceptions and views based on the national interests of Iranian and Afghan historians.

Analytical Study of the Effects of Tribal Elements on the Functioning of Roads through Mamasani District along Bushehr-Shiraz Road Network during the Qajar Period

Aref Eshaghi; Aliakbar Jafari; Fereydon Allahyari

Volume 13, Issue 4 , January 2022, , Pages 1-38

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2021.126567.2121

Abstract

Abstract Bushehr had a high status and was of high importance among the southern entry routes and ports in Iran on the coast of the Persian Gulf during the Qajar period (1210-1344 ... Read More Abstract Bushehr had a high status and was of high importance among the southern entry routes and ports in Iran on the coast of the Persian Gulf during the Qajar period (1210-1344 AH/1788-1925 AD). This port city was considered the center of economic exchanges, political and cultural relations, and even military affairs. Connection of this important center with the inner cities and the capital, as well as the ongoing issues related to this connection through Bushehr-Shiraz road network, added to the need for paying more attention to this subject matter. The passage of this transportation route through the areas controlled by Mamasani tribes and their strong impacts on the security and prosperity of activities along this road or insecurity, sluggishness, and the many problems created in this regard indicated the active and reactive effects of this road network triggered by the tribal structure of inhabitants surrounding it. Considering the importance of this issue, this study aimed to investigate the effects of tribal elements on the functions of the roads through Mamasani District along Bushehr-Shiraz road network during the Qajar period. In fact, we sought to answer this question: "What effects did the Lor tribes of Mamasani District have on the functioning of the roads in this region along the important Bushehr-Shiraz road network during the Qajar period?" This research dealt with this issue through library, documentary, and field study methods. Introduction The security of Bushehr-Shiraz communication routes and the dominance of Mamasani tribes over an important part of these routes were among the socio-political factors creating tension in the region. The importance of the means of communication in fulfilling the interests of Britain, local rulers, and the central government created new socio-political and economic relations in the areas where these roads passed, as well as their surrounding areas. These new relations caused the mentioned areas to undergo new serious socio-political changes. The course of these historical developments affected an important part of the history of southern Iran. Therefore, the central subject of this research was to investigate and explain the effects of tribal elements on the functions of the roads through Mamasani District along Bushehr-Shiraz road network during the Qajar period. Moreover, the present study sought to answer this question: "What effects did the Lor tribes of Mamasani District have on the functioning of the roads in this region along the important Bushehr-Shiraz road network during the Qajar period?" Despite the importance and status of Mamasani tribes in the developments of the southern regions of Iran, little research has been conducted in this regard. Particularly, the subject of this article has not received much attention. This subject of study or other issues related to Mamasani tribes have been addressed mainly due to the historical connections of the mentioned tribes with Qashqai tribe, which has received more research attention. Some examples are the papers written by Mansour Nasiri Tayebi entitled "Pars State and Foreign Powers from Constitutionalism to the Reign of Reza Shah" and "The Role of the Qashqais in the History and Culture of Iran". Although the research paper by Ali Rasouli and Ali Shahvand entitled "Local Competitions in Pars State and Relocation of Bushehr-Shiraz Route from Shahi to Gereh Road (1909-1910 AD/1327-1329 AH) has not addressed the role of Mamasani tribes in Bushehr-Shiraz road network, it is a study about this communication route, thus dealing with the routes of this road network. Anyhow, the subject of this research was a new approach to some communication routes through this important road network. Undoubtedly, due to the lack of resources and research background regarding Mamasani tribes, the study of this subject was associated with many difficulties. Therefore, attempts were made to fill in part of the information and historical data gaps through access to private unclassified documents of some local families, as well as interviews with local informants, who were oral narrators of the news about long-lived people and their predecessors though they had not witnessed the events and happenings themselves. It should be considered that an important part of the history of tribes, which is either about the events that have not been regarded in the official and national historiography or a different narrative from the official and governmental narrative, should be recognized based on this category of oral narrations that have been passed down from generation to generation. Materials and Methods In this research, library, documentary, and field study methods were applied to determine the effects of Mamasani tribes on the functioning of roads through Mamasani region in the important Bushehr-Shiraz road network during the Qajar period. To this goal, the researcher used the private unclassified documents obtained from local informants and through interviews with them. Discussion, Results, and Conclusion During the Qajar period, especially after the Nasserite era, the British government’s attention to the strategic location of Bushehr City turned this port into a sea gate of trading and conducting Iranian foreign and cultural policies. The main transit route network for commercial goods was the royal road of Bushehr-Shiraz road network. An important part of this route overlapped with the roads that were dominated by Mamasani tribes during the mentioned period. The local government unions that were mainly affected by provision of interests and gaining revenues through unwritten contracts provided securities of the roads. The action and reaction of all the regions located along this trading route created a kind of political, social, and economic common market. They were strongly influenced by each other so that any insecurity in one region created a severe crisis on other regions. As aforementioned, the issue of insecurity on Bushehr-Shiraz trading route and domination and rioting of Mamasani tribes urged the British agents, who had come up with a comprehensive policy on the background of Mamasani tribes’ customs and their bio-social, cultural, moral, and ethnic backgrounds while performing political duties in the interests of their own government, to carefully take into account the economic, social, and cultural aspects of Mamasani region. The result of this recognition was the British government’s perception of the fact that Mamasani tribes were not following its own interests. Therefore, the British government’s strategy to get out of the crisis and provide security of the communication routes in Bushehr-Shiraz road network caused more British intervention in hope of fulfilling its political and economic interests. Mamasani District was put into crisis by Moin al-Tojjar Bushehri encroaching on its lands. This was associated with Qashqai leaders waging wars against Mamasani tribes with the central government’s support, particularly through the intervention of Britain. Eventually, all these factors caused Solat al-Dawla Qashqa'i to compete with other local rulers along the royal road, especially the routes passing through Mamasani District. The Ghavamal-Mulk dynasty, with their own political and economic motives instead of collaborating with Mamasani tribes in caravans' passing through this region to make secure the royal road and the common routes of the tribes on Qashqai and Mamasani tribes, this region proposed the winter road of Qashqai regions to the British government rather than Mamasani roads. In addition to having no economic justification, this action could not politically serve Qashqai Ilkhan’s interests. However, the Ilkhan took necessary steps in the direction of British interests to create a crisis and eliminate Mamasani tribes’ power and dominance over Bushehr-Shiraz road network.

The Historical Course of Halgheh Mysticism in Iran

Fahimeh Rahimi khoygani; Morteza dehqannejad; abolhassan fayaz

Volume 13, Issue 4 , January 2022, , Pages 39-60

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2021.25871

Abstract

Abstract:The discourse upon the reasons of the formations and growth of historical and cultural phenomena is inevitably mandatory. A cultural phenomenon that has recently started ... Read More Abstract:The discourse upon the reasons of the formations and growth of historical and cultural phenomena is inevitably mandatory. A cultural phenomenon that has recently started to grow and attracted its own advocators is Halgheh Mysticism. The study at hand intended to utilize both research on the basis of interview and a field research to find an answer to the following query: “What historical and cultural patterns has the progress of Halgheh Mysticism been linked to?”The data of the study were the results of library-based research, interviews with theoreticians of New Religious Movements (NMRs), interviews with people, who had become inclined towards Halgheh Mysticism, and observations on this mode of mysticism within the bounds of social media. The most significant achievement of this research was that Halgheh Mysticism, in its 4 historical periods, had attained an eye-catching development by benefitting from education both online and in person, emphasis on the rights of women and political prisoners, and efforts to formulate popular mottos. It should, however, be mentioned that there were several differences between the methods and contents developed in these 4 periods based on the findings. The contents in the 1st and 2nd periods were mostly built upon religious tenets, whereas the issues at stake in the 3rd and 4th periods were rarely compatible with Islam’s tenets. Furthermore, in the 3rd and 4th periods and subsequent to the event of Taheri’s arrest, masters and trainers were the main advertisers, whereas the classes were held in person by the founder of Halgheh Mysticism in the 1st and 2nd periods. Introduction:Halgheh Mysticism was founded by Mohammad Ali Taheri at the end of the 70s and was inclined towards transcendentalism and cure of diseases. The founder claimed that the movement was of an Iranian origin, which was obliged by more followers in comparison to other similar movements. Because of the radical difference between Halgheh Mysticism and the already established religions and political tenets in Iran, the importance of a discourse upon recent mysticisms was of inevitable exigency. Nevertheless, it must be underlined that mysticism, similar to other fields, is not bound by time and place. It is present in several common forms among societies and the proper recognition of its origins is highly contingent upon the social, cultural, economic, and historical situations of a certain society.Despite the fact that extensive research has taken place regarding Halgheh Mysticism, there have been approaches to negation and the critique of this mode of mysticism is the point, toward which they converge. The proposition of unrealistic viewpoints has been the main concern of these works and the tenets and teachings of Halgheh Mysticism have been radically refused with utter disregard for people’s growing attraction towards this movement. Mohammad Masoud Saeedi’s “Reasons, Motivations, and the Consequences of Entering the Halgheh Mysticism” (1396) is an instance. In Saeedi’s study, the main reason for the growth of Halgheh Mysticism in Iran was introduced as an individual’s special condition and the context, in which he is situated. The main point where this and the former studies diverged to was methodology. The study at hand was the result of analyzing the data of interviews on the contents of social media over a span of two years and the growth of Halgheh Mysticism with emphasis on its success.The historical analysis of Halgheh Mysticism and the reasons of its growth have been rarely focused upon in academic venues. After two decades, Halgheh Mysticism achieved fruition in Iran by depending on its mottos and employing apt advertising techniques that were suitable to the society’s condition. The current study is among the first academic research that has considered the capacities and attractions of Halgheh Mysticism in analyzing its historical progress and reasons of growth and seeks to respond to the following queries in a descriptive-analytic manner:How has the historical growth of Halgheh Mysticism in Iran been like?What have been the cultural, sociological, and historical factors that have affected the growth speed of Halgheh Mysticism?The data in the study at hand were gathered based on the following methodological techniques:Interviews with theoreticians of NRMs and Halgheh associatesGathering data from Halgheh associates using questionnairesOnline resources, E-Books, and social media channels relevant to the movements of new religionsPublished works pivoting around the pathology of Halgheh MysticismThe works published by M. A. Taheri and his tuteesInevitably, this research was numerously limited, mainly due to security restrictions, a number of personal and systematic instances of favoritism, the difficulty of gaining access to NRM resources, and the censoring of websites and channels offering several modes of mysticism. Nonetheless, the current study strove to achieve an authentic, legit analysis of the existing data in social media and the resources available on the newly-found modes of mysticism.Data and Methods:The data in the present research were the result of field research, interviews with correlating theoreticians and the people newly inclined to Halgheh Mysticism, and observations of the related works and activities within social media in a 2-year span.Discussion of Results & Conclusions:Halgheh Mysticism, which is of an Iranian origin as Taheri claims, was formed at the end of the 70s. This mode of mysticism was among the new mystical movements and, in fact, the most important Iranian one. From the day it was established, it faced several challenges. A retrospective look back at Taheri’s twenty years of activity resulted in the division of Halgheh Mysticism into 4 periods. The 1st period was initiated in 1357, when Taheri claimed that he had experienced certain visions. It was continued until the middle of the 70s. This period was the period of Taheri’s formation of character. The 2nd period started at the end of the former and was terminated when Taheri was arrested in 1389. The 3rd period that started with Taheri’s arrest was abound with several efforts, such as manipulation of human rights, discrediting the critics, and masters’ endeavors to transform Halgheh Mysticism into a plethora of sub-sections. Finally, the 4th period spanned from when Taheri was released to the present time. Each of these time periods were unique in their varied characteristics and events.The 1st and 2nd periods of Taheri’s activities were of a more peaceful and educational nature and focused mostly on holding classes, undertaking research, and introducing Halgheh and its complementary two-fold medical styles directed to scientific and academic societies. Taheri’s vague religious, educational, and family backgrounds and employment of favoritism in the interpretation of religious ideas and dictums that led to the occurrence of iconoclastic attitudes were the issues that caused several serious objections from religious thinkers, sociologists, and religion philosophers to Halgheh Mysticism, culminating in the utter restriction of the movement’s activities in Iran.In the 3rd and 4th periods, an alternative way of thinking was seen in its members. Besides its emergence in the other countries, emphasizing on education in the social media, responding to the critiques on Halgheh Mysticism, and developing a resolute spirit of battling and refusal of authority were among the characteristics of these periods. Taheri’s incarceration made his tutees play a more active role.Despite all the objections that still exist, Halgheh Mysticism is one of the most prevalent, new creeds in Iran and owes its development to attractions, such as style treatment, peace and transcendentalism, lenience in religion, pragmatism, formation of pseudo-progressive mottos, and lack of resources for criticism that surrounds this mode of thinking.

Sufism in Relation to the Culture and New Civilization in Iran: A Probe into Hajj Mulla Ali Nur Alishah Gunabadi’s Views

Mohammadali Tavousi; Mahmood Reza Esfandiar; Shahram Pazouki

Volume 13, Issue 4 , January 2022, , Pages 61-76

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2021.131208.2269

Abstract

AbstractSufism in relation to culture and civilization is one of the controversial issues among contemporary researchers. In this paper, after presenting the current controversial ideas ... Read More AbstractSufism in relation to culture and civilization is one of the controversial issues among contemporary researchers. In this paper, after presenting the current controversial ideas on this topic in Iran and the key role of Sufis in the development of thoughts, culture, and Islamic civilization as well as condidering the manifestations of the new civilization and concepts in Iran in the Qajar era, the authors of the present paper discussed Sufi masters’ approach towards the culture and new civilization, as well as their related issues, which could be helpful in perceiving the relation between Sufism, culture, and civilization. Thus, in the current paper, the socio-cultural viewpoints of Nur Alishah Gunabadi as one of the great Sufi masters of Nimatullahi Sufi Order in Qajar era about the culture and new civilization, along with their related matters, were investigated. The researchers also pointed out some views of Sultan Alishah, who was Nur Alishah Gunabadi’s father and Sufi predecessor. Consequently, Nur Alishah as a jurist mystic, who had comprehended the new culture and civilization, adjusted the religious viewpoints and circumstances of the new civilization to the cultural affairs of the new era with fidelity to genuine Islamic teachings.IntroductionSufism in relation to culture and civilization and their related issues in the Islamic world is one of the controversial topics among contemporary researchers. There are two different approaches related to the mentioned issue. On the one hand, there is a negative look at Sufism and mysticism considering them as causes of the decline of culture and Islamic civilization. On the other hand, advocates of the second approach believe that culture and civilization are some remarkable issues considered by Sufies, who have been always important characters for the developments of culture, as well as Islamic thoughts and civilization. According to the mentioned issues, as that Qajar era could be claimed to be a period of recognition of Iranian culture and the new civilization for Persian scholars, the discussion on Sufi masters’ approach towards culture and the new civilization can be helpful in perceiving the relation between Sufism, culture, and civilization. Moreover, since Nimatollahi Sufi Order, which is one of the important Sufi orders with a strong background, has played an important role in Iran’s social circumstances in Qajar era, the researchers, for the first time, investigated the role of culture and new civilization based on the socio-cultural views of Hajj Mulla Ali Gunabadi known as Nur Alishah (A.H.L.1284-1337/A.D.1867-1918), one of the great Sufi masters of Nimatollahi Sufi Order. Since Hajj Mulla Ali Gunabadi was the son and Sufi successor of Hajj Mulla Sultan Mohammad Beidokhti known as Sultan Alishah (A.H.L.1251-1327/A.D.1835-1909), as well as the renewer of Nimatollahi Sufi Order, who was raised in his Sufi order, the researchers mention some of his juridical views as well. Materials & MethodsThe present study is a library research based on the main data in the library resources. Some of Hajj Mulla Ali’s manuscripts on socio-cultural issues in Qajar era were used in this regard. The current research used a descriptive-analytical method with reference to historical texts.Discussion of Results & ConclusionIn the current research, the researchers explained some clues about Hajj Mulla Ali Gunabadi’s interest in the culture and new civilization, as well as their related issues, thus showing his true perception of the domination of these issues on social etiquettes. Moreover, some contents of interest for learning the new sciences and technologies, along with Islamic sciences, were presented. The last part of the article dealt with Hajj Mulla Ali Gunabadi’s juridical views. He, like his father, avoided to issue juridical views as much as possible, but as a jurist mystic, he inevitably issued some of such views on some questions. The researchers mentioned three of these views of Nur Alishah on bigamy, narcotics, and slaveholding, which were related to the cultural changes and social issues in the new era. During this investigation, the researchers pointed out some of Sultan Alishah’s views on the prohibition of bigamy and opium as well. By referring to Islamic texts, such as Quranic verses and narrations, and due to the domination of cultural requirements in the society in the new era, it was found that Nur Alishah had had to issue these views exactly like his father and prohibit slaveholding. The result of the present study revealed that the new civilization and its different manifestations, such as development of science in the world, were some issues of Hajj Mulla Ali Gunabadi’s interest. He, like his father and other Sufi ancestors, believed that paying attention to culture and social progress was inevitable. Consequently, he tried to adjust the religious viewpoints and circumstances of the new civilization to the cultural affairs of the new era with fidelity to genuine Islamic teachings. Hence, this was a confirmation for some scholars’ views, who believed that not only Sufism and Sufis’ mystical teachings were not the reasons for the decline of civilization and an impediment to progress in the Islamic world, but also real Sufis made development of Islamic culture and progress of intellectual sciences in the Islamic world.

Reflection of National Components on the Content of History Textbooks in the Second Pahlavi Era: Application of Ruth Wodak’s Theory of Historical Discourse Analysis

Azam Faramarzi; MohammadM Kalhor; Ali Akbar Khedrizadeh

Volume 13, Issue 4 , January 2022, , Pages 77-92

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2022.130840.2262

Abstract

The establishment of the modern state in contemporary Iran brought about a fundamental change in the traditional education. The special function of the educational institution in its ... Read More The establishment of the modern state in contemporary Iran brought about a fundamental change in the traditional education. The special function of the educational institution in its modern form is to reproduce and institutionalize the ideology of politics. Emphasis on the ancient history of Iran and the central role of the emperor in the Iranian political system during the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi has been formulated as an external manifestation of nationalism in various studies, but the intentional injection of this ideology into the content of history textbooks has not been studied by any researcher. In the present study, from this perspective, attention has been paid to how national components are reflected in textbooks through linguistic analysis. The technique used in the linguistic analysis of the content of history textbooks in the second Pahlavi period in this research is derived from the research of Ruth Wodak (2015) in this field. She pays attention to 5 different levels of language formation stages for the formulation of scientific propositions. Therefore, this study, in the dialectic between history and ideology and power, seeks to investigate the strategies of political institutions (second Pahlavi era) in creating the text, interpretation, and the selection of historical propositions by examining the content of history textbooks according to Ruth Wodak’s approach of historical discourse analysis. Introduction From this perspective, the present study focuses on the content of history textbooks in the second Pahlavi period, because history education has a special capacity to convey national components. In this course, the subject is the study of the unique situation of Iran, which with its long-term historical background and special geographical location in the West Asian region can play a decisive role in the future of global relations. The official policy of the Pahlavi government demanded that textbooks pave the way for national integration and increase hope and confidence in the future, followed by the development of cultural and economic infrastructure, by referring to the Iranian identity past and emphasizing the antiquity of the Iranian nation. The scope of structural changes in the second Pahlavi era led to the transformation of the educational system and textbooks of different periodspublished in the textbook authoring organization, under the direct supervision of the Ministry of Culture in an integrated manner for the use of students. The central question of the present study can be posed as follows: Considering the method of Ruth Wodak in critically analyzing the discourse, what language strategies did the second Pahlavi government use to teach and promote national teachings and concepts during the content of history textbooks? The hypothesis of this research is that historiography in the history textbooks of the second Pahlavi era, following the tradition of nationalist historiography (which was more widespread), is equipped with special linguistic components to instill a specific meaning of history in the student's audience. Discussion of the history of Iran and the restoration of national identity through historical sources, as well as drawing patterns of political thought following the requirements of Iranian history, are among the new topics that have emerged in the new form of historiography in Persian and have spread to other neighboring disciplines. If modern historiography in Iran is considered to be related to the establishment of the university, the background of the nationalist discourse in the field of historiography could be equal to the establishment of the University of Tehran. Therefore, it is a contemporary phenomenon and the product of the actions of the modern government in the contemporary history of Iran. Materials and Methods: Ruth Wodak seeks to establish a structured relationship between language components by examining different linguistic units at four levels: word, sentence, paragraph, and whole text. According to him (his article entitled Historical Approach to Discourse Analysis), 4 levels (layers) of language are physically present and identifiable. These four levels are the four units of language (word, sentence, paragraph, and the whole text). She has developed a strategy or technique for identifying each language unit. But language is a fluid phenomenon, and a text does not end after the reading process is completed. Thus, here we come to the "hypertext" field of language in which the strategy of intensification/mitigation allows the researcher to identify the function of the author's mentality and subconscious and the mental perspective of the student's audience from the content of history textbooks. Ruth Wodak's approach to linguistic analysis (one of the subset methods of discourse analysis) is very similar to previous approaches, but there are features such as a special attention to history and historical background information and its application in text comprehension, leading to the formation of this new approach. It is a new type compared to previous similar examples, which is now known as historical-discourse analysis. At the level of text analysis, this approach addresses five strategies in the form of five questions: How are persons named and referred to linguistically? What traits, characteristics, qualities, and features are attributed to them? By means of what arguments and argumentation schemes do specific persons or social groups try to justify and legitimize the exclusion, discrimination, suppression, and exploitation of others? From what perspective or point of view are these labels, attributions, and arguments expressed? Are the respective utterances articulated overtly? Are they intensified or are they mitigated? Discussion of Results and Conclusions: In the present research, the ultimate goal was to formulate the relationship between the centralized sphere of power (government of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi) and the authors of history textbooks at different educational levels at that time (1332 to 1357 AD). The technique and method used to formulate this relationship has gone beyond Foucault's poststructuralism and entered the realm of critical discourse analysis. The result of applying the strategy of intensification/mitigation on the text of history textbooks was the mentality formed by the student audience from studying the content that has been changed with the previous 4 language strategies. In this context, the history of Iran in the general sense was a manifesto in defense of the rule of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi over Iran. The value of words, the presuppositions established in sentences, the lengthy arguments in different chapters and sections of the textbook, and finally the choice of an ideal perspective to watch the Shah's corrective actions prepared the student's mind to see Iranian history differently. Many authors of history textbooks in the second Pahlavi era were university professors who wrote in the paradigm of nationalist historiography (sometimes referred to as the school of University of Tehran historiography) and consciously or unconsciously the principles and criteria of the ideology of established rule were incorporated into the formulation of Iran's historical past. At the same time, it is the product of the same social institutions (universities, schools, and Iranian textbook writing organization). In other words, the hypertext formed from the history of Iran in the pen of the author and the mind of the reader was both a product of the situation and a creator of the situation. To answer the central question of the research, by examining the text of 10 history textbooks from the second Pahlavi period and applying five linguistic strategies from Ruth Wodak’s historical discourse analysis technique, it was found that the ruling apparatus in that period was to legitimize the power of Mohammad Reza Shah and support his reforms. Historical textbooks have achieved a special definition of the history of Iran, during which the "imperial system and kings of the Pahlavi family" are recognized as the basic element of "reform, progress, and development of the country". The textbooks convince the student that, according to historical experience, just as the great emperors of Iran took great steps for the development of the country before, today the kings of the Pahlavi family are in charge of the development and progress of the country. In the case of Iran, in particular, it can be said that national components are not abstract elements or outside of the concepts at the heart of Iranian history. Textbooks of the history of the second Pahlavi era used the same capacity to describe the Iranian nation as "ancient". As a result, national components can be independently transferred to the "New Iran" or "Modern Iran" project. Referential/nomination, predication, and argumentation strategies were employed at various language levels to represent the landscape of the "ancient nation of Iran" and the "institution of the protective monarchy of the nation (perspectivization/ framing strategy)". In this way, parts of history were in the spotlight and parts of it were marginalized (intensification/mitigation strategy). The product of applying these five strategies (along with each other and maintaining order) will be that students, taking into account the historical background of Iran, confirm the legitimacy of the Pahlavi dynasty and the correctness of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi's corrective actions, because, from the perspective of history textbooks, he continues the path of other great princes of Iran.

Bushehr Etemadieh Factory and its Impact on the Socio-economic Structure of Bushehr in the Pahlavi Era

Fatimah Hatami; Habibollah Saeedinia; Mohammad Reza Mansorimoghadam

Volume 13, Issue 4 , January 2022, , Pages 93-114

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2022.128927.2205

Abstract

Abstract In the Pahlavi era, industrialization was one of the policies of the government, and therefore establishing new factories especially textile factories were among the most ... Read More Abstract In the Pahlavi era, industrialization was one of the policies of the government, and therefore establishing new factories especially textile factories were among the most important priorities due to offering employment opportunities and added value. One of the cities that was deemed suitable for establishing textile factories was Bushehr where Bushehr Etemadieh textile factory was officially established in 1938. The aim of this study is to investigate the establishment, the activities, and the effects of spinning and weaving factories on the socio-economic conditions of Bushehr. The main question of this study is: what factors lead to the establishment of the spinning and weaving company in Bushehr, and what impact did it have on the economic and social situations in this city? This research uses the descriptive-analytical method based on documentary data of library archives and national libraries, local new documents, periodicals, library resources, and first-hand texts. The results showed that the company had a great impact on the economic and social structure of Bushehr, and in addition to increasing employment and migration, it led to growing awareness of the workers and the formation of urban workers and non-petroleum products in the city. Introduction The textile industry has been one of the major industries in Iran over the centuries. A new chapter in the history of Iranian industries was created by the fall of the Qajar dynasty and the advent of the Pahlavi regime. Reza Shah adopted modernization in the industry as a goal, and in this regard, he set up the establishment and development of industries, including textile industries. As the first textile factory in 1304 AH (1918), it was established in Iran despite the development of industries in the country by 1945. Industrialization was a priority for the economic programmers of Reza Shah government. During the Reza Pahlavi era, because of the increase in oil prices and his efforts to compete with European countries, many industries including the textile industry grew and flourished. One of the factories that flourished during the Reza Shah era was the establishment of spinning and weaving plant of Etemadieh on October 4, 1938. The company officially opened and operated in Davas of Bushehr. In this study, it is assumed that the industrialization policies of the Pahlavi state, especially the development of the country’s textile industries, led to the establishment of Etemadieh weaving company in Bushehr. This led to the economic boom of Bushehr, including increased employment, increased migration, the formation of urban laborers, and non-petroleum commodities exports in the city. Materials and Methods The data of this study are based on valid historical sources, archival documents, new documents, journals, field studies, and oral history through interviews with people who were familiar with the factory and especially employees and managers of the Etemadieh factory. The method used in this study is descriptive-analytical relying on the main sources. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Among the industries that worked in the Pahlavi era was the textile industry in Bushehr as well as other parts of the country. On October 26, 1938, Etemadieh factory, named by its founder, was officially established as a textile factory in Bushehr. The basis of the establishment and management of the Etemadieh factory was based on Statute which was approved in the first general assembly of the company on 20th September. According to the statute, Etemadieh was the first to be a special stock company at the top of its management pyramid, managing director, and then board members and auditors. Etemadieh Company had many employees to operate in the field of production and administration and services. The machinery and equipment of the factory were also purchased from the Japanese and Italian companies which had good quality, so the factory was in good conditions in terms of production during its boom. The quality pieces of the pound fabrics were also made from cotton yarn from different cities of Iran. The research results show that the factory had a great impact on the socio-economic structure of Bushehr. On the one hand, the company paved the ground for the employment of more than one thousand people. On the other hand, Bushehr’s economy, facing a recession, was experiencing a revival again. In addition to economic and industrial effects, the construction of Etemadieh factory was also followed by social results including the migration of many people from different urban and rural areas around Bushehr to the city as well as the development of industrial and municipal workers in Bushehr. In terms of culture, it contributed to the sphere of culture and cultural interests, including the establishment of a school of decency and support from charities and orphanages.

Analysis and Explanation of the Realm and Various Approaches in Oral History

Mohsen Kazemi; Morteza Nouraei; Reza Shabani Samghabadi

Volume 13, Issue 3 , October 2021, , Pages 1-20

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2020.126066.2103

Abstract

Oral history is in its quantitative heyday in Iran. However, this heyday is not parallel with theoretical and methodological discussions. This trend can undermine the creditability ... Read More Oral history is in its quantitative heyday in Iran. However, this heyday is not parallel with theoretical and methodological discussions. This trend can undermine the creditability and status of oral history in the future. Ignoring the theoretical and methodological discussion and overgrown production of works under the title of ‘oral history’ in Iran will endanger this field in general. The questions of realm and approaches of oral history are among the neglected or at least not fully noted matters among oral historians. In the present study, it is assumed the readers know the identification of oral history and its differences with memories and oral tradition, and they are not mentioned to avoid repetition. The author has presented two subjects that can have effective approaches for the researchers and empower them by good knowledge in the field of oral history. In the present study, two questions are answered: How extended is the realm of oral history? And which people and subjects can be included in it? Then, three notable theoretical approaches are discussed. Oral history like many other fields of humanities is an interdisciplinary one. So, considering any discipline it will have different approaches. In this study, notable and compatible approaches with oral history are assessed. Introduction: Oral history, as a new phenomenon in historiography, has gone through a tortuous path for more than seven decades to reach its current state. In its ups and downs, it has passed through certain states and has treaded in numerous arenas. A history researcher needs to discern how far oral history has extended in terms of time, space, and topic. When it comes to speech and the quality of being oral, whether we like it or not, certain disciplines such as linguistics, anthropology, and psychology are also involved. In the face of different disciplines, oral history adapts to past and present theories in various situations. Awareness of the theoretical context and basic knowledge of sciences at any time tells us that oral history can relate to many of these theories and even strengthen them. Of course, oral history is not able to relate to all theories, but it sometimes borrows dimensions from them. The impromptu nature of oral history has allowed it to be weighed by different theories. It is interesting that sometimes in several opposite and contradictory theories, oral history can be defined. The present study is an attempt to see how far the scope and realm of oral history extends, and how it is related to the three approaches of functionalism, structuralism, and critical realism. Of course, it must be kept in mind that oral history and its question system determine in which theoretical school, strategy, approach, and method should be followed and which position should be obtained. Materials and Methods: In this descriptive study, the scope of oral history and three approaches of functionalism, structuralism, and critical realism in the face of oral history have been studied. Discussion of Results and Conclusions: The result of the present study indicates that the scope and realm of oral history are divided into three dimensions: 1) Temporal (encompassing two generations or 160 years), 2) Spatial (location of events), and 3) Topical (infinite number of topics, depending on the capacity of mind, memory, conditions of presence and action or witnessing events, happenings, and phenomena). In examining the functionalist approach and its relationship with oral history, it was determined that oral history, given its interdisciplinary nature, can have a reciprocal effect in the face of some other approaches in humanities. Functionalism is concerned with systemic and organic theory, but it has a positivist illusion and considers reasoning and mind as merely bodily functions of mankind. Oral history, therefore, is influenced by the mind and the dignity of human rationality is contrasted with functionalism. On the other hand, it considers functionalism of the society superior to man and considers man as a function of the society. The system of oral history, considering the inherent characteristics as well as the spiritual and psychological traits of human beings, does not reflect this superiority, and merely considers human beings and society as overlapping. Reflecting on the prevailing views of structuralism, it can be construed that society comprises various relationships, social ideas, and structures. In the field of history, structuralism sees phenomena as a coherent and interconnected whole, and because it reduces the fields of study of history, it kind of becomes a reductionist approach. Therefore, structuralism can be criticized in this regard. In oral history with a structuralist approach, human action, advantage, and consciousness are degrade and the networked relationships of structural elements are placed at the center of historical phenomena. In structuralist oral history research, attitudes, and explanations are based on the participants’ mental views, based on the narrator’s understanding of the relationships between phenomena. Research in such a situation is a bottom-up one. Narrators' narratives are the result of experience, interaction, and relationships between elements of society, and putting them together can even lead to a theory. By examining the critical realist approach, it can be considered that oral history is a window towards the real world, and can serve as a thread for the mental fabric. To reflect on the world and reality, perception is needed as a material that is only possible through oral history. Oral history seems to be fully analyzable from the perspective of critical realism. Given critical realism, oral history passes through the mind to discover the world and exploits language, thought, and perception en route. A multi-layered world is formed from complex and intertwined objective layers. Oral history enables critical reflection by counting data and retrieving sensory experiences from the world. Critical realism, then, brings oral history closer to gaining knowledge of the existence and deepening knowledge of the world and its surroundings.

A Study of Fashion and Preening Components in Etellat-e-Banovan )Women's Information( Magazine (1957-1961)

Soudabe Moazami goodarzi; Shahab Shahidani; Jahanbakh Savagheb

Volume 13, Issue 2 , July 2021, , Pages 93-112

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2021.128075.2172

Abstract

Abstract One of the plans of the Second Pahlavi Government was trying to create a cultural modernization based on Western patterns. One of the measures taken during this process was ... Read More Abstract One of the plans of the Second Pahlavi Government was trying to create a cultural modernization based on Western patterns. One of the measures taken during this process was to change women’s lifestyles, especially their clothing and preening patterns. To this end, the ideological apparatuses of the Pahlavi government promoted new patterns of preening and fashion among various classes of the society. In the meantime, the media, especially the press, had a special role to play in promoting the models. One of the women's magazines in the 1950s that was active for weekly providing government-friendly templates was Etellat-e-Banovan (Women's Information). The purpose of this article was to study the components of this journal and the way of promoting its fashion and preening patterns from 1957 to 1961 by using a descriptive-analytical method. The findings showed that this magazine placed a special value on Western-style clothing and preening which was in line with the cultural policies of the Pahlavi government, especially in the area of women's clothing and preening patterns. However, although being aware of the consequences of this change of lifestyle and Iranian women’s modernization in the face of ethical and social crises, the magazine sought to familiarize Iranian women with Western-style self-realization and clothing, deeming it to be the correct and real concept of fashion and preening. They made women segregate from such principles as simplicity, modesty, dignity, chastity, and moderation. Introduction Historically, the beginning of a change in women’s types of clothing and preening and turning it into a considerable issue coincided with the changes that took place in the middle of the Qajar period in the Iranians’ various areas of political, social, economic, and cultural lives. It provided a gradual change in the women’s traditional lifestyles. As a result, Iranians became acquainted with the new culture and civilization of the West, one of the most obvious and tangible elements of which was self-decoration, especially based on the Western women’s dresses and styles. In the Pahlavi period, the country’s modernization according to Western models was an important program that was taken into account. Based on this plan, creating cultural changes, especially in the way women wore and preened their appearances, was on the agenda of the country's cultural policy makers and was interpreted as cultural modernization. Under the Pahlavi regime, cultural policies were designed in a way to replace Western cultural patterns with traditional and religious patterns of the Iranian society. In the meantime, the media, especially the press, played an important role in this cultural alteration. One of the publications that promoted the new patterns of clothing and make-up in line with the goals of the second Pahlavi government was the magazine of Etellat-e-Banovan (Women's Information). This magazine sought to engage women with new topics such as clothing and preening, and train girls according to the Western culture, while focusing on the formation of women's association and organization that paid attention to women's employment, social and civil rights, liberation, food, fun, entertainment, marriage, housekeeping, and mothercraft in a new way and encourage them to follow them. It promoted attention to fashionable women's clothing and make-up in Western countries and advertised Western beauty standards in a variety of ways. This article sought to explore how this magazine promoted new Western patterns of preening and fashion among Iranian women in the second Pahlavi era and how it tried to moderate the conflict created by this new phenomenon in the traditional society. Based on the research hypothesis, there was a relationship between the actions taken by the mentioned magazine as the main variable and the preening and clothing pattern as a functional variable, which could have an increasing or positive role, a decreasing or negative role, or an ineffective role. Consequently, it was found to have played an effective role in changing this pattern. Materials and Methods With a descriptive-analytical approach based on the library study, the present article sought to find an answer to the following question: What was the approach of Women's Information Weekly towards the components of Iranian women's preening and fashion? Discussion of Results & Conclusions The Pahlavi government sought cultural modernization based on Western models through iconoclastic actions and policies. Among the measures taken by the government in such cultural renewal were changes in women's lifestyles, fashion, and sexual identity, especially in the field of clothing and preening. One of the most important tools of the government in advertising and promoting its policies in this regard was the media, especially the press, such as the magazine Etellat-e-Banovan. This magazine tried to introduce fashion and preening in a new style based on modernity and reflect the ways of promoting it in women's daily lives. Nevertheless, since the newly-realized values were not in accordance with the values of the society, contradictions were created in this regard. Of course, it had the possibility of acceptance in the upper strata of urban classes and affiliates of administrative institutions and technocrats whose connection with the second Pahlavi modernism was evident and was increasing from the 1930s onwards, thus resulting in a kind of limited protest against the bottlenecks of the traditional system of fashion and women's self-decoration. Nonetheless, this category of self-decoration and new fashion had no place in the traditional life of Iranian women, who made an important and dominant part of the population. On the other hand, the formulation of such a type of distant fashion and self-decoration between the traditional and modern society had led to dualism and behavioral distress about the type of clothing and makeup that put women in a dilemma, which, in a glimpse, the mentioned magazine was not devoid of. The magazine's efforts to simultaneously promote the Western fashion and undermine moralities were made in the process of Iranian women's fashionism. The publication sought to address the dilemma of Western fashion and preening with traditional women's ethics and moral characteristics such as modesty, simplicity, and dignity. Thus, the authors of the journal sought to repair this dichotomy by citing evidence such as men's hatred of extremist fashionism and mentioning moral flaws with regard to the unhealthy lives of Western actors and women's health. These recommendations, however, were contrary to adopting religious references and traditional ethics in some cases though the gap between the Western fashion and traditional ethics could not be principally filled by referring to such moral teachings. The overall referrals and lack of evidence in the articles and images introducing examples of simple and successful western women, besides continuation of extremely large advertising of preening could not prevent misunderstandings of opinions about and actions towards fashion and self-decoration and reduce moral and social crises. Hence, the largest volume of articles about the mentioned magazine focused on the Western fashion and preening in the process of women's modernization. Along with changes in the women’s appearances, the magazine tried to critique the current traditionality and offer a different view and belief that girls and women should look more realistic when accepting Western-style clothing and preening and not being extremist in practicing traditions. The whole magazine contradicted with the Iranian culture by trying to interpret the new clothing and make-up as being according to the cultural standards of the society, which were in line with the Pahlavi cultural policies, while promoting Western fashions and preening. Although it could be accepted that Western fashionism was not necessarily immoral as the magazine tried to persuade women in this way, women’s understanding of such a practice in the Iranian society seemed to be in need of being developed in another time and period.

An Analysis of the Settlement Policy of the Qashqai Tribe by the First Pahlavi Government

Babak Zeilabpour; Morteza Dehghannejad

Volume 13, Issue 1 , April 2021, , Pages 19-38

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2021.125893.2094

Abstract

Abstract:With the coming to power of Reza Shah, the plans of the Pahlavi government to establish security, centralism, reform, progress, and new order came into conflict with Illyrian ... Read More Abstract:With the coming to power of Reza Shah, the plans of the Pahlavi government to establish security, centralism, reform, progress, and new order came into conflict with Illyrian life. One of the Pahlavi government’s plans for the tribes was settlement policy, an issue of which the Qashqai tribe was no exception. The purpose of the present study was to analyze the settlement policy of the Qashqai tribe by the First Pahlavi government. In the political-economic relations of the Qashqai tribe with the first Pahlavi government, the question is: what were the purposes of the settlement program in the Qashqai tribe and how was it implemented? And what was the result of their settlement? Based on this issue, this study seeks to answer two questions: how was the housing policy implemented in the Qashqai tribe? And What were the consequences of the settlement policy in the Qashqai tribe?IntroductionConsidering the goals of Reza Shah and his entourage in establishing security, centralism, reforms, and new order, the first Pahlavi state in the history of Iran was the first government that tried to abolish nomadism and settle tribes, and the Qashqai tribe was no exception. The plans of the first Pahlavi government towards the tribes include the policy of disarmament, deprivation of power from the heads of the tribes, the policy of decentralization and culturalization, and the strategy of settlement of the tribes. In the relations of the Qashqai tribe with Reza Shah, there were three stages of cooperation, confrontation, and war. The first Pahlavi government sought to infiltrate and disintegrate the Qashqai tribe, and the Qashqai sought to preserve its existence and identity. In the relations of the Qashqai tribe with the first Pahlavi government, one of the tribal policies of the government was the settlement program, which was implemented in the 1310s AH (1931-1932s). Therefore, since no independent research has been done on the settlement of the Qashqai tribe, the present study seeks to determine the settlement policy of the Qashqai tribe and its failure.Materials and Methods:This research was conducted using the historical research method and compiling and writing descriptive-analytical based on the documents of the Documents Organization and the National Library of the Islamic Republic of Iran) NLAI ( with the origin of Fars province and supplementing the library resources. Discussion of Results and Conclusions:The settlement of the Qashqai tribe, which was carried out in the 1310s (1931-1932s) by the Qashqai military government and the Persian settlement administration, aimed at establishing security, taxation, and civilizing the Qashqai community. The construction of the Qashqai tribe was based on the two pillars of settlement and livestock management. The Persian Housing Authority, with the help of the military, settled Qashqai families in their summer and winter areas based on the settlement system. In this process, all the titles and positions of the tribes became obsolete and only the position of Kadkhoda was recognized. By giving letters of commitment, Kadkhoda was obliged to resettle the families under his care and prevented them from moving, and committed them to construction and to engage in agriculture. Simultaneously, with the settlement of the tribe, in order to feed thousands of cattle and livestock, shepherding licenses were issued to the herdsmen, which was the main place for controlling licenses and taxation in the Strait of Beida.Although the settlement of the Qashqai tribe and other sub-tribes were the right goals for centralism, progress, and modernization of Iran, in practice, the settlement of the Qashqai tribe was a hasty policy without considering the socio-economic conditions of the tribal society. The settlement of the Qashqai tribe resulted in defeats with the expulsion of Reza Shah from Iran. The most important reason for this defeat was the economic blow to the Qashqais, because the settlement caused the loss of a large part of their livestock, while with their settlement, agriculture was not very economical. Also, living in sheds and crypts that did not resemble the building, bribery, and coercion by military and government officials, short-living time and maintaining tribal life, and preserving tribal identity, the good fortune of the family of Solat al-Dawla Qashqai Other were among factors causing this failure.

The Role of Pearl Industry in the Beach Dwellers’ Convergence around Persian Gulf in the Qajar Era

Salman Ghasemian

Volume 13, Issue 1 , April 2021, , Pages 39-54

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2021.124174.2090

Abstract

1-AbstractAssessment of the role of pearls in recognizing some historical and traditional concepts governing the social and economic relations of inhabitants around the Persian Gulf, ... Read More 1-AbstractAssessment of the role of pearls in recognizing some historical and traditional concepts governing the social and economic relations of inhabitants around the Persian Gulf, especially its central and southern coasts, is of great significance due to their special position for explaining the historical events and contexts of the Persian Gulf Region Administration. Pearl has been defined as an important commodity in the region's traditional economy, prompting researchers to explore its various social, economic, and political dimensions. Among the important historical backgrounds, recognizing and redefining how to manage this vast trade in local and regional dimensions and continuing to find traces of Iranian bureaucracy were the focus of this particular case study. With its analytical approach and based on some historical evidence, this article sought to answer the fundamental question of what the trace of Iranian bureaucracy in this process was given the mechanism of pearl fishing and trading. The prevailing premise was that bureaucracy had indirectly contributed to fishing management and regulation of pearl-fishing grounds.2- Introduction Traditionally and historically, the southern coastline of the Persian Gulf, along with the southern coast of Iran, was based on geographical proximity, common religion and economic interests, and political and social ties. In the meantime, trade interactions, especially participation in trading for goods and fisheries, were more important. In the context of interactions for gaining economic benefits from the sea, pearl fishing and trading were of particular significance due to the role of different strata in gaining broad financial benefits. This could be the basis for doing a historical analysis on the role of pearl fishing and trading in creating a kind of collective participation and historical interaction between coastal residents on both sides of the Persian Gulf. Interactions that had existed since ancient times and throughout the history of the Islamic era were reinforced by the strengthening of religious ties between Iranians and Arabs and continued until the Qajar period. Since pearl fishing was the most important platform for economic activities of the coastal residents, who were scattered along the southern shores of the Persian Gulf and had no other livelihoods, pearl fishing and trading were the major and central platform for their roles in the local Persian Gulf economy. This presence was more prominent in the major pearl sites in the region, namely around Bahrain, east and west of Qatar Peninsula, and around the islands of Abu Dhabi. Understanding the nature of this interaction, the important role of Iranian captains and merchants in this business, and the need for convergence and coordination among coastal residents revealed the role of their common interests in creating this ancient traditional system and a better communication for strengthening those interests. Although the evolution of the international system and development of the trade and security systems by securing British Naval Power and preserving the Indian Empire changed the long-standing relations and local traditions in the Persian Gulf, pearl fishing and trading so well dominated over the region due to its complexity and special characteristics. It was less affected by the conditions of the new era and was able to maintain its existence until the 1930s. Go on with your life. Nevertheless, the first half of the 19th century …AD/13 AH. The pattern of beach-dwelling relations with the presence of pearl fisheries on the southeast coast was the same as the traditional patterns. Meanwhile, the southeastern shores of the Persian Gulf were the most important pearl-fishing grounds in the entire Indian Ocean basin and an important center of mass gathering and collective participation of coastal residents throughout the ports and islands of the Persian Gulf. Meanwhile, despite the historical importance of the principles of interaction and participation in the coastal residents’ social lives, the major issue for Iranian and Arab scholars in the present era was to address the qualities and scopes of Iranian and Arab governments’ influences and powers in Persian Gulf ports and islands. Hence, less attention was paid to the issue of interaction and participation of both groups in the social and economic contexts. Although a brief look at the historical and human geography and climate on the shores of the Persian Gulf revealed the concentration of human settlements on the northern shores (present-day coasts of Iran) and the dominance of Iranian elements on the sea. The social and economic lives on the ports and islands were neglected. Participation continued from the distant past to the domination of modern security systems in the 14th century AH/20 AD. Therefore, the developments that occurred during the last two centuries necessitated recognition of some historical foundations of connections between the coastal and maritime areas on both sides of the Persian Gulf. Due to the economic and communication significance of this commercial region, pearls were of historical importance among the commercial goods in the Persian Gulf as they had a special role in the coastal residents’ livelihood and local economy. Pearl was known as a locally produced commodity and unlike other important transit commodities, such as spices, horses, textiles, nuts, etc., it was not merely a transit commodity, while it belonged to the coastal areas and the coastal people permanently participated in catching and processing it. The difference between pearl and other important local commodities like salt was in its reliance on fishing techniques and complexity and trading process, as well as its necessities. Knowledge and experience, along with the financial resources derived from the pearl trade, provided a balance for coastal residents against foreign interference. Moreover, the deep connection of pearls with all aspects of local people’s social lives and the scope of activities related to it were in such a way that even oil, despite its economic importance beyond pearls, was not as a cultural activity linked to the sea people’s lives as pearls, which created closeness. However, the most important issue in this regard was the complexity of how Iranians were related to pearl fishing and trading in the Persian Gulf.Scattered historical references to pearl fishing and trading were the basis for understanding some important aspects of the interactions between the two shores. In addition to the book "Al-Magha's Al-Laali and Minar Al-Laali" (Sadid al-Saltanah Kababi (1371), which was published under the Persian name of "Northern Lands ..." and whose main title and contents had brief references to fishing and trading in the Persian Gulf region, a short book on the subject of pearls entitled "Al-Manas fi Ahwal al-Ghousva al-Al-Wass" by Sadid al-Saltanah Kababi (1308) was available. Also, there was a collection of documents related to pearl fishing in the Persian Gulf. This four-volume collection of documents from the mid-19th century to the mid-20th century contained statistics and reports that showed the role of pearls in coastal people’s livelihoods. Among the official documents and reports of the British agency in the Persian Gulf, which were in the form of several independent collections, the detailed collection of Saldanha and Lorimer was included as well. 3- Materials & Methods Through historical and analytical methods and based on library studies, this article tried to answer the basic question of what role this commodity played in creating interaction and convergence among the coastal residents of the Persian Gulf according to the mechanism of pearl fishing and trading. The prevailing assumption was that the process of attending fishing grounds and the rules and regulations governing fishing culture played an important role in creating convergence and interaction among coastal residents with regard to the importance of pearl fishing and trading, as well as researchers' emphasis on the existence of rules and traditional customs.4- Discussion of Results & Conclusions Obtaining financial benefits for political centers on the northern shores of the Persian Gulf provided an explanation to the importance of this industry and trade. A closer look at the events revealed that the central role of pearl industry in the inhabitants’ lives and livelihoods on the southern coasts had not been studied by researchers despite the existence of some references in the sources, which could sufficiently encourage them to perform explanatory research in these areas. The historical nature of coastal dwellers’ connection and interactions based on the culture and economy of pearls should be carefully studied as one of the most original and fundamental foundations of the history of the Persian Gulf region.Pearls had a special place in the local economy of the southern coasts of the Persian Gulf due to their historical importance, so much so that in official reports, they were mentioned as the strength of the scattered settlements on the southern coasts. In the first Qajar era, the basis of interactions between both sides of the Persian Gulf was a continuation of the historical trading traditions in the form of the presence of fishing fleets and residents in pearl fisheries in Iranian ports. In the field of pearl trading, which was considered to be the most important livelihood activity of dwellers on the southern shores of the Persian Gulf, an unwritten and, of course, precise mechanism, which Lorimer considered a Sassanid tradition, made the basis for creating order between thousands of boats and ships. These traditions were seen in the spatial and temporal divisions of fishermen's groups and timing of the presence of large and small ships, merchants, etc., expressing common interests and the necessity of establishing a system of customs on both sides of the northern and southern coasts. This did the right thing even without a direct supervision in the Qajar period, which was the result of the emergence of new European mechanisms that remained strong until the middle of the 14th century AH/20 AD. Despite the weakness and decline of the Qajar ruling system, this continuous presence showed that local traditions were a key factor in preserving the region's historical identity by strengthening the interaction between coastal residents even in the absence of direct supervision of the central government. These traditions reflected an important part of the coastal inhabitants’ economic and social lives.

The Politics of Otomanism to Russianism in the Relations of Jafar Qoli Khan Donboli with the Qajar Government

Fatemeh Jafarnia; Mohammad Aziznejad

Volume 13, Issue 1 , April 2021, , Pages 69-88

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2021.129729.2231

Abstract

AbstractJafar Qoli khan Donboli was one of the influential members of the Donboli dynasty in the scene of political developments in Azerbaijan and the Caucasus during the Qajar period. ... Read More AbstractJafar Qoli khan Donboli was one of the influential members of the Donboli dynasty in the scene of political developments in Azerbaijan and the Caucasus during the Qajar period. In the events following the assassination of his father, Ahmad Khan, he played an important role in consolidating the rule of his brother, Hussein Khan, and restoring the glory of the Donboli dynasty. But his approach to relations with the Qajar government was unstable. Contrary to the practice of obeying the rule of Aqa Mohammad Khan, during the reign of Fath Ali Shah, in order to challenge his authority in Azerbaijan, he tried to open the door to the Ottoman and Russia by adopting the policy of confrontation. In this regard, this study aims to investigate the politics of Otomanism to Russianism in the relations of Jafar Qoli Khan Donboli with the Qajar government. Two questions have been posed in this study: what was Jafar Qoli Khan's relations with the Qajar? And what were the influential factors in his inclination towards the Ottoman and Russian? The results of the study showed that he revolted against the Qajar in order to counter the policy of integrating with the central power and maintaining the Donboli dynasty. Therefore, after failing in a military confrontation with the Qajar and the lack of support from the Ottoman, he turned to that government, observing the power of the Russians.IntroductionThe Donboli family was one of the local families in Azerbaijan and the city of Khoy was their main base. The authority of this dynasty reached its peak during Ahmad Khan due to the weakness of Zandid's government. However, this family suffered from some internal conflicts. The Qajar government used this weakness to exercise their sovereignty over them, fomenting internal divisions within the Donboli dynasty, paving the way for their integration into the central power. On the eve of the formation of the Qajar government, Hussein Khan was the head of the Donboli dynasty. Due to the power of the Qajars, he leaned towards the new government of Iran, and through this he achieved the position of Beglerbegi of Azerbaijan. But unlike his brother, Jafar Qoli Khan did not have a stable policy towards the Qajars. In order to take over the rule of the Donboli family and removing his brother in relations with Aqa Mohammad Khan, he followed the procedure of obedience and was able to gain the position of Beglerbegi by attracting the opinion of the ruler of Iran. But the process of accompanying him was changed with the death of Aqa Mohammad Khan, and during the reign of Fath Ali Shah, he adopted the policy of confrontation and started an armed struggle against the Qajars. In order to challenge the authority of the Qajars, he tried to involve them in the internal affairs of Azerbaijan through the policies of Ottomanism and Russification. This study tries to investigate the causes of his relationship with Fath Ali Shah and the emergence of dual behaviors from the politics of interaction to confrontation. The role of peripheral powers in the issue of Jafar Qoli Khan and its effect on relations with the Qajar government and the recognition of his role in the position of Khan Shaki under the supervision of the Russian are other issues presented in this study.Materials and MethodsThis research has made an attemot to investigate the issue by relying on Russian, Ottoman, and Iranian historiographical documents and using the descriptive-explanatory method. In this research, mainly Russian documents (AkAK) and Ottoman archival documents (bеlgеlеri) have been used. The Russian documents contain reports of Russian, Iranian, Ottoman rulers, and Khans about the developments in the Caucasus and Jafar Qoli Khan's relations with Russian. The Ottoman documents contain information about the correspondence of Khans of Khoy with the Ottoman authorities and reports from the Ottoman pashas about the Jafar Qoli Khan uprising. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThe result of the study showed that the component of hostility formed the basis of Jafar Qoli Khan's relations with the Qajar government. He waged an armed struggle to maintain the local government of Donboli and to oppose the policy of integration of the Qajar and with several unsuccessful revolts. He turned to the Ottoman to achieve his goals. By establishing relations with the border pashas, he tried to make the ground ready for Ottoman authorities to interfere internal affairs of Azerbaijan by obtaining their help and creating unrest in the border areas of the two countries. However, Iran's diplomatic action on the Ottoman and its willingness to adhere to a compromise led to the issuance of a decree entitled Jafar Qoli Khan's on pashas not to support Khan Donboli. His failure to capture the Ottomans caused him to turn to the Russians. The Russians, realizing Khan Donboli's influence in Azerbaijan, considered him as a suitable option to advance their political ambitions in the Caucasus and appointed him as the governor of the Shaki. He became the executor of their policies in the region with the support of the Russians and by suppressing the pro-Iranian insurgency, he provided the ground for Russian influence and consolidation in the Caucasus region.

Investigating the Impact of Land Reforms of 1962-1978 on Urban Population: A Case Study of Ilam

Maryam ghlichi; Morteza Nouraei

Volume 12, Issue 4 , January 2021, , Pages 1-20

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2020.124481.2049

Abstract

Abstract Government reform policies in rural areas have steadily increased through a variety of economic and social programs from 1962 to 1978. One of them was the implementation of ... Read More Abstract Government reform policies in rural areas have steadily increased through a variety of economic and social programs from 1962 to 1978. One of them was the implementation of land reforms in 1962 that changed the structure of land ownership and consequently transformed the construction of socio-economic classes. The present article seeks to answer the following question with a descriptive-analytical approach: what are the social and economic consequences of demographic changes after land reforms in Ilam? The results showed that while the goal of land reform was to balance ownership and the rational use of lands by the villagers, the outcome was different and most peasants lost their independence due to the lack of credit, capital, and suitable land, and not only the influence of the owners didn’t diminish, but their economic conditions also gradually weakened. This situation largely destroyed the aspirations of villagers regarding land forms and other agricultural policies of the government. This happened in Ilam province and caused the migration of villagers to the city, increasing the population and suburbanization in Ilam city. Suburbanization in this city caused the spread of social harm, the destruction of agricultural lands, the physical development of the city in unsuitable lands, and the creation of slums. Introduction One of the actions of the Iranian government in the 1960s was the approval of six bills including land reforms to address the lower classes of the society. The land reform that was passed to divide the land among the farmers and for the welfare of the farmers was practically the transfer of land ownership to the landless peasants and farmers, which led to changes in the relations of production and the structure of the society through the promotion of national power. These reforms were generally welcomed by the peasants and farmers, but in practice, and after the implementation, their shortcomings and problems became apparent that had a profound effect on the political, social, and economic structure of the society. Despite the abolition of the landlord-peasant system and the abolition of traditional management of farmers’ agriculture production, these reforms led to a decline in agricultural production, migration, and the growth of suburbanization in cities. The increasing population of cities was actually due to the migration of villagers and the liberated manpower of the agriculture sector in the village and their turning to the cities. Large landowners and capitalists also diverted their capitals to the cities and built financial, service, and industrial institutions due to the transfer of land to the peasants. In the process of agricultural modernization in the second Pahlavi period, the community of tribes and nomads who had the traditional method of production was integrated with the rural community in order to develop modern agriculture. This changed agriculture and the land ownership system. Land reforms caused the transformations in the social and economic situations of Ilam city including more nomadic settlement in the villages, the growth of rural migration to the city of Ilam, and the expansion of suburbanization in the city. Land reforms were approved on January 10, 1961, and their annexes were added until the end of these reforms in 1972. Land reforms have gone through three stages. The beginning of the first stage was in 1961, which lasted one year. The second stage began with the approval of 7 February 1962 and was implemented with the approval of 22 February 1964. Finally, the third stage began in 1968 and officially ended in 1972. These land reforms also took place in Ilam. Material & Methods The present study, based on library information and data, documents, and interviews, examined the impact of land reforms of 1962-1978 on the Ilam population. The main question of the research was: what were the effects of land reforms on the population of Ilam city? In answer to the question, this hypothesis was considered: land reforms caused the migration of villagers and increased the population of Ilam city. Discussion of Results & Conclusions Land reforms in Iran were proposed by the government in 1963 and were approved by two parliaments and were implemented in three stages. The first stage began in 1963, according to which anyone who owned more than one land had to sell the surplus to the government. Arsanjani presented at this stage, and 700,000 people became landowners. The second stage began in 1965. At this stage, the land was leased to the farmers who cultivated it. This guaranteed the ownership right of landowners. Finally, the government decided to start the third stage in the 1970s, according to which the lands that were leased for 30 years were sold to the tenants. The aim of land reforms was to carry out a series of complementary and continuous measures to bring about fundamental changes in agriculture including the ownership of arable lands, the system of exploitation and the method of production, and the increase of income and the welfare of farmers. Land reform also sought to divide the lands and eliminate the influence of major landowners. With the implementation of the land reform law, Ilam province was included in these reforms, and parts of the government properties in Mehran, Dehloran, and Darrehshahr counties, as well as parts of the properties in Ilam, Ivan, Sirvan, and Chardavol counties were purchased by the government. In the central part of Ilam, 32 plots of land were subject to land reform regulations. Thirty-one plots of land were purchased during the implementation of the third stage of the land reform law, and one plot was purchased by the government (cooperative and Rural Affairs organization), which was owned by the Agriculture Bank. In most of Iran’s major cities, land reforms have led to the migration of a large number of poor and small peasants to the cities, especially large cities, and the expansion of suburbanization in these cities. Land reforms in Ilam province and consequently in Ilam city caused the influx of immigrants in this period and the rapid growth of the city and the expansion of suburbanization to the city. This issue eliminated the opportunity to plan for the future expansion of the city and the establishment of the necessary elements and applications in a balanced way in the city and neighborhoods. Land reforms in Iran have created many inequalities in various economic, political, and social fields. While the purpose of land reforms was to create an independent and self-reliant class of peasants, but the result was inverse, and most peasants lost their independence due to the lack of credit, capital, and adequate land, and landowners’ influence didn’t decrease, as expected. At the same time, political power was transferred to the government. The government also strengthened the remnants of wealthy landowners and peasants. All these factors caused more poverty and inequality in the villages, the gap between the poor and the rich increased day by day, and the level of development in the villages not only didn’t increase but also decreased.

Analysis of the Process of Establishment of Women’s Organization of Bushehr, Study Research: Socio-Cultural Activities of Family Welfare Centers (1967-1978)

Pari Shahrokh moghadam; Habibollah Saeedinia; Elham Malekzadeh

Volume 12, Issue 4 , January 2021, , Pages 55-70

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2021.127467.2152

Abstract

Abstract: The women's organization of Iran was founded in 1966. The ultimate purpose of the organization was to raise the cultural, social and economic knowledge of the women of Iran. ... Read More Abstract: The women's organization of Iran was founded in 1966. The ultimate purpose of the organization was to raise the cultural, social and economic knowledge of the women of Iran. The organization created nearly 400 Centers all over the country. One of the Centers was established in Bushehr province in late 1966. The most emphasis of the Women's Organization was on the enhancement of woman's knowledge and education and providing facilities for their entry into the labor market. Thereby, the Women's Organization of Bushehr focused mostly on holding several types of artistic and literacy courses and acquainting women with different employment and job search methods. This study aims to address and explain how Women's Organization of Bushehr was founded and what social and cultural activities and services it accomplished. The question of the research is ‘What services the organization has made in the family welfare centers for self-awareness and promotion of women's status in this region?’ The findings of this research show that Women's organization of Bushehr, in the sphere of social welfare, focused on literacy development, held professional education classes and courses in the field of business and provided family and legal counseling, which resulted in the growth of knowledge, development of employment and promotion of women's role and statue in various social and cultural affairs. Introduction One of the programs of Iran's Pahlavi dynasty was considering women and girls issues and trying to draw women outside of their home and to engage some educated and working women in government departments and labor markets. In this regard, Raza shah Pahlavi established numerous public schools for girls throughout Iran and set the mandatory unveiling of women known as Kashf-e hijab. In addition, he founded 'The Women's Association' to educate them according to the pattern he had in his mind, and centralized all related activities of women in this government department. After that, Mohammad Raza shah, in line with the development and modernization of Iran, took serious consideration to women's issues and their associations. Thus, he established several governmental institutions, entities and organizations related to women from the 1330s to 1350s. One of the most important government departments related to women in Mohammad Raza shah reign was 'The Women's Organization of Iran' which took considerable measures in various facets and fields. In addition to Organization's activities in Tehran, it undertook activities in other cities and even in several villages in Iran. According to governmental and official statistics, Women's Organization of Iran grew to establish nearly 400 centers and branches across Iranian cities by 1977. The organization started its activities in Bushehr province and its subsidiaries in late 1966. Whereas there are no available scientific studies with a historical approach about the process of foundation and performance of the family welfare centers in Women's Organization of the current province of Bushehr, this research seeks to address this issue through original resources, archival records, historical studies and oral history. This study is based on the assumption that Women's Organization of Bushehr has promoted women's role and status in different fields such as educational, health, cultural and legal affairs. Materials and Methods The data are gathered from valid historical sources, archival documents, journals, field studies, oral history, and through interviews with people who have been the main members of Women's Organization of Bushehr and its subsidiaries. The method used in this study is the method of analyzing the content and it relies on the main sources. Discussion of Results and Conclusions In Bushehr, Women's Organization of Iran was founded by women working in social sectors and employed them in 1966. Additionally, several centers were established in some districts of Bushehr province from 1966 to 1970. Women's Organization of Bushehr was administered directly under the supervision of the central center in Tehran. Family welfare centers were the most important body of Women's Organization of Iran, which acted as a service unit. The activities of these centers include education (literacy technical and vocational training), kindergarten, health and family planning, family and legal counseling. The most successful measures taken by the Women’s Organization of Bushehr was holding and launching specific job training centers such as carpet weaving, sewing, weaving, embroidery, typewriting and barbering. The unit of kindergarten in the family welfare centers in Bushehr undertook the duty of caring for children in low-income families. The purpose of establishing the unit of health and family planning by the Women’s Organization was to raise the level of women's knowledge about individual health, maternal and child health and the importance of family planning. The unit is administered in association with the Ministry of Health. The unit of legal and family counseling in family welfare centers in Bushehr, as well as other parts of Iran, undertook the duty of guidance and assistance to families for marriage, family relations, child training, complaints in legal cases or offering training courses. Women's Organization of Bushehr continued its activities for months after the Islamic revolution victory. After a few months, in 1979, an audit commission was sent to Women’s Organization Centers in various cities. Accordingly, Centers located in Bushehr port were audited and after ensuring that there were not any kind of illegal works, they were officially dissolved. After the announcement of dissolution, all employees working in the Organization were transferred to the Welfare Organization. One of the achievements of Women's Organization of Bushehr was that efforts of the Organization resulted in solving or decreasing some problems of women living in Bushehr. The Organization of Bushehr, to the extent of its power and energy, took considerable actions in the social welfare sector, which included increasing civil awareness, providing education, health and cultural services for employed mothers or non-educated and unemployed women, protecting homeless women, offering legal and judicial advice to female inmates of prisons, setting up kindergartens, and especially training women in the field of public and personal health. As a result, the Organization promoted the role and status of women in various social and cultural areas. At the same time, the traditional and religious context of the women’s society didn't profoundly change according to the demand and patterns determined by the government.

Bushehr Etemadieh Textile Factory from its Establishment to Closure (1937-2009)

Hamid Asadpour

Volume 12, Issue 4 , January 2021, , Pages 95-110

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2021.126392.2116

Abstract

Abstract The economic and industrial history of Bushehr is one of the unspoken and unopened dimensions of this land. Bushehr’s economic history is divided into two parts, which ... Read More Abstract The economic and industrial history of Bushehr is one of the unspoken and unopened dimensions of this land. Bushehr’s economic history is divided into two parts, which include the period of the traditional economy and modern economy. In the modern economy of Bushehr, various industries play a role, which are headed by oil, gas, and petrochemical industries, shipbuilding industries, and food industries. However, the pioneer of modern industries in Bushehr province has been the textile industry. This study seeks to investigate the context and consequences of the establishment of atextile factory --Etemadieh-- and the reasons for its closure. The main question of this research is the following: What arethe grounds for constructing Etemadiyeh textile factory in Bushehr and its consequences? The main hypothesis of this research is that the establishment of Etemadiyeh factory in Bushehr is the product of the emergence of a period of industrial development in Iran, the main feature of which is the entry of the private sector into the industry, including spinning and weaving industries. The motivation of this group of capital owners, in addition to making a profit, has been national and patriotic motives and efforts to create a local industry. Also, the establishment of this factory led to the reduction of unemployment in Bushehr. Introduction The spinning and weaving industries in Iran have a long and remarkable history. In fact, one of the historical advantages of the industry in Iran is the strong presence of the textile industry in the economic and industrial structure of Iran. Iranians have been familiar with the spinning and weaving industry since ancient times and have produced many products in this field. There are signs of the flourishing of the textile industry during the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sassanid eras, which indicate that the Iranians were the leaders in most of the textile fields of their time. Iran's spinning and weaving industry during the Sassanid period was so prestigious and important that it continued its work after Islam. After Islam and the arrival of the Arabs in Iran, due to the importance of the textile industry in Iran, newcomers were willing to accept part of the Iranian tax in the form of textile products. An example of this can be seen in the city of Touj or Toz (Moghaddasi, 2006). Also, Tha'labi in his description of Fars has spoken of the export of five thousand garments (Tha'labi, 1989). Considering the important background of Bushehr in the field of textile weaving and the existence of centers such as Touj and Janaba and also the economic prosperity of Bushehr in the Qajar period, it was expected that Bushehr was one of the most important and prosperous ports of Iran in the Pahlavi period. Bushehr lost its prosperity and was not paid much attention by the Pahlavi government. Few important measures were taken in Bushehr by patriotic businessmen, such as the establishment of Etemadiyeh factory. This research has investigated the ups and downs of this factory from 1937 to 2009. The main question of this research is the following: What are the grounds for the establishment of this factory and its consequences? This study seeks to answer this question by examining the ups and downs of this factory from 1937 to 2009. Materials and Methods This study is a descriptive-analytical one, one is what are the grounds for the The data were collected using historical documents, newspapers, and books. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Etemadiyeh textile factory, which was the product of the development period of the spinning and weaving industry in the first Pahlavi era, had the potential to change the face of Bushehr province to an industrial and developed province. Etemadieh textile factory, which is the first modern spinning and weaving factory on the shores of the Persian Gulf, provided the grounds and conditions for the creation and expansion of industries in Bushehr and proved that Bushehr can be an industrial place in addition to commercial and port advantages. Etemadiyeh textile factory, which at its peak had more than 2,000 workers and employees, was very successful in developing the city of Bushehr and creating business for local and non-native volunteers. The patriotic interests and motives of local merchants, as well as the existence of suitable conditions for making a profit in the field of the textile industry in Bushehr, led to the establishment of this factory. Bushehr's distance from important textile production centers and the lack of fabric in Bushehr were other grounds for the construction of this industrial unit in Bushehr. The establishment of Etemadiyeh factory led to the formation and emergence of the industrial working in Bushehr and the increase of awareness and developments related to this class. Improving the quality of life of workers along with some of their dissatisfactions are among other consequences. Most of these dissatisfactions, which are related to the closure of this factory on several occasions, are due to factors such as lack of cash, old machinery, board disputes, and the recession in Bushehr. During the seventy-two years of the company's activity, several obstacles appeared in the way of its continuation and expansion; the identification and removal of these obstacles could provide the grounds for the industrialization of Bushehr. The lack of support for industrial activities in Bushehr province could clearly be observed in the case of Etemadieh factory. The factory is a historical and objective experience of the possibility of establishing and operating industries in Bushehr province that could last for more than seventy years. However, despite this considerable history and background, for various reasons, including the lack of serious support for industry and industrial activities, the factory was eventually closed supporting the claim that trade activities and exports and imports of goods and intermediation are more profitable in Iran than the establishment of factories and industrial units. Bushehr Etemadiyeh textile factory could meet the needs of society in the most severe economic and social conditions of the country during the Second World War and after, relying on domestic resources and raw materials. In addition to creating wealth, it reduced the country's dependence on foreign goods. This factory showed that investing in the garment industry and spinning and weaving industries has been a successful and effective policy.

The Central Government and Developments in the West of Iran: Governors of Ilam

Nourodin Nemati

Volume 12, Issue 3 , September 2020, , Pages 51-63

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2020.123369.1995

Abstract

Abstract: After coming to power, the Qajars in pursuit of security and continuity of government sought to suppress and dismantle local powers and their possible rivals. The governors ... Read More Abstract: After coming to power, the Qajars in pursuit of security and continuity of government sought to suppress and dismantle local powers and their possible rivals. The governors organized military forces using natural, geographic, mountainous, and strategic conditions. Thus, Qajars recognized them as legitimate governors. The Qajars utilized the power of the governors to suppress the rebellion of Khuzestan, Lorestan, and Kermanshah regions, and to prevent the Ottoman boundary interferences. Hossein-Quli Khan was a governor who received Nasser-al-Din Shah’s support including titles and continuity of his post. After the death of Qulam-Reza Khan, Mozafar al-Din Shah continued this support for his son. Although the son was not capable like his father, he managed to secure the governorship. However, with the fall of Qajars and the rise of the Pahlavi Dynasty, he fled to Iraq and eventually the governorship collapsed. The present study sought to investigate how the relationship between the central power structure and Poshtkuh governors was, and how the equilibrium of power was established between the central government of Qajar and the said Governors. The research hypothesis is that the Qajar government has supported the governors in the pursuit of internal and border stability, and the governors have been loyal to the Qajars. Introduction: In pursuit of the stability of their government, the Qajars suppressed and dismantled local powers and their possible rivals after coming to power. Having understood the new situation, the governors relocated their ruling headquarter to Poshtkuh. They were recognized officially by the central government using the special geographic position of the region, reorganizing military forces, establishing order and restoring the limit of their territories, sending taxes and tolls timely, and suppressing the violence of Ottomans. The statesmen of the central government employed their military power to establish order and security and to suppress local rebellions in Khuzestan, Lorestan, and Kermanshah regions if necessary. The powerful governors of Poshtkuh were related inversely with power fluctuations of the central government in terms of power equilibrium. Despite their power and specific condition in their realm, they never claimed autonomy, separation, and evasion from the central power. Materials and Methods: The present study was based on historical documents and the analysis of other related sources. Discussion of Results and Conclusions: Hossein Quli Khan, the governor of Poshtkuh, established and restored order in line with commands of the central government during his ruling term (1280-1318 AH/1863-1900 AD). He was noticed as a local and authoritarian power inside and outside his realm by suppressing the violence of Ottomans and chasing them. Using high military power, he managed to suppress rebellions in Lorestan, Khuzestan, and Kermanshah and thereby played an essential and effective role in these regions. Zel Al-Sultan and Isfahan and Lorestan governors together brought him to Tehran during wedding ceremonies for his son, Sultan Hossein Mirza Jala Al- Doleh. He was honored to the titles of Sarem Al-Saltaneh, Amir Toman, the head of Poshtkooh corps, and granting a sword when visiting Nasereddin Shah. The title of Fath Al-Saltaneh was granted to his son on this trip. With his intercession, Zel Al-Sultan, as powerful governor of Isfahan and Lorestan, released a great number of chiefs of Lor tribes from the jail in Isfahan. Following the establishment of civil security and the restoration of border limits for exploitation from salt mines, ranches of various tribes and nomads, further utilization from water supplies of borderline rivers, and dominance over some disputed border zones, he defeated the Ottoman and chased them up to Tigris banks. Under such conditions, the Ottoman government tries to compel the governor to retreat by diplomatic protests; however, the government that was aware of his services, not only did not obstruct him but also appreciated his magnificent services. His son, Qulam Reza, succeeded him after his death in 1318 Ah (1900AD). The structure of the political system changed following the victory of the Constitutional Movement and the formation of the National Council Parliament. QulamRezaGovernor, Sheikh Khazal, and Solat Al-Doleh Qashqaei formed a ternary alliance under the title of ‘Society of Prosperity’ to prevent Qajar collapse and to continue the constitutional trend. Although they did no important activity in this regard; however, they acted more independently in their territories. Qulam RezaGovernor caused some problems in the Kut Al Amara region (Iraqi border) by supporting the interim government for British forces during World War I (1914-1918). Following to take the power of the Pahlavi I Government (1925-1941) and in the course of the New Order and the concentration of political power by the governor, who could not fight against the Modern Army, he took asylum in Iraq by gathering his properties. The governors were supported by the central government with the establishment of domestic order and security, stability at borders, and sending taxes timely to the financial administration. They assumed their own territory as an integrated part of this country at the peak point of their territorial sovereignty and tackled Ottoman violence by avoiding claiming independence and seeking separation from the central government. The results of the present study imply that in pursuit of the establishment of internal and border stability and tax payment, Qajar statesmen were supported by the governors within the realm of their power and there was a reverse relationship between financial relations of governors with a change in the equilibrium of central power.

Persian customs in the travelogue of James Morier and Towards Ispahan by Pierre Loti

Safoura Tork Ladani

Volume 12, Issue 2 , July 2020, , Pages 19-34

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2020.122369.1949

Abstract

Imagology in comparative literature deals with the study of representations and the image of the others in a travelogue or a literary work. Alterity is one of the conceptions of this ... Read More

The Economic and Commercial Situation of Mirjavah in the Second Pahlavi Era

Maryam Sheipari; Sedigheh Aghaee

Volume 12, Issue 2 , July 2020, , Pages 71-86

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2020.123360.1993

Abstract

Abstract: Iran’s eastern borders have historically been one of the country’s most important economic routes, and developments in the region and within the country have ... Read More Abstract: Iran’s eastern borders have historically been one of the country’s most important economic routes, and developments in the region and within the country have had a direct impact on the prosperity and decline of the routes. Mirjavah is one of the cities in Sistan and Baluchestan province in eastern Iran. It is located near the border with Pakistan. The inhabitants of Mirjavah are Baloch. Mirjavah became important in contemporary history first due to Russian-British rivalries and it then became important because of the railway that connected the city to Quetta. It was considered one of the most important customs in the east of the country. The main reason for the development of this city was foreign trade and the existence of railways. The border town fell into economic prosperity after Pakistan seceded from India. As a result, people’s lifestyles changed. Researchers were sent there by the central government in the 1970s to identify Mirjaveh's economic situation. This research was based on some of these reports. The question of the research is: what was the economic situation of Mirjavah in the Pahlavi era? The results showed that smuggling has flourished due to the lack of prosperity in agriculture and formal trade, and the actions have been ineffective. Introduction: The present study aimed at investigating the economic and commercial situation of Mirjavahduring the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah and consisted of three parts: agriculture and animal husbandry in Mirjaveh, trade and customs, and smuggling in Mirjavah. In the first part, geographical location and climate show did not allow extensive agriculture and animal husbandry. Considering the second part, people’s lives and problems have reportedly been investigated after Pakistan seceded from India. Regarding the third part (smuggling of goods) studies have shown that trafficking has flourished for various reasons. Material & Methods: About the sources used and research methods, two very important sources were written about this city. A View of Mirjavah is a manuscript written by Assadollah Alavi and Faramarz Asadzadeh in 1975. This manuscript is in the library of the Zahedan Program and Budget Organization Also, Mirjaveh Economic Report by Mahmoud Zand Moghadam is in the library of the Tehran Program and Budget Organization which was prepared in 1976. Both works have examined the city from an economic, social, and especially commercial point of view. Sources include tables and pictures and additional descriptions. This research has been written based on these reports, documents of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and interviews with several people from Mirjavah. Discussion of Results & Conclusions: This article was written in all three cases about Mirjaveh's economic issues (agriculture, animal husbandry, and trade). Mirjaveh air is warm and its natural environment is dry and the rain in Mirjaveh is in the form of showers. Floods occur due to low and high ground. Documents showed that there was no possibility of extensive agriculture and animal husbandry in this city. Also, this article has covered problems such as the size of the area, lack of border control, and lack of sufficient and trained forces at the borders. It was one of the problems that fueled the issue of trafficking. Lack of coordination between Pakistani and Iranian staff was another problem that affected the city's economy and lack of traffic control at the borders has been another economic and social problem of this city. The present study also discussed the type of commercial goods smuggled. In the early years of the second Pahlavi regime, most of the gold was smuggled across the border which the government at the time had made great efforts to control. Wheat was another commodity that was always smuggled into this city. Gradually, this trend has changed and with the strengthening of the central government, the goods became more diverse and simpler. It has changed from gold and coins to wooden beds, tea, spices, and old foreign clothes. Also, smuggled vehicles had changed from camels to cars. But the city faced economic hardship during this period of border poverty and most of the people's livelihood was through smuggling Thus, the research findings showed due to the lack of prosperity in agricultural occupations and official trade and the proximity of this border city to Zahedan, trafficking from Mirjaveh route has flourished. The Pahlavi government in the 1960s and 1970s paid special attention to the eastern borders and sought to establish better trade relations between Iran, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Therefore, the government had several plans for Sistan and Baluchistan province. The plans were ineffective in the case of the city of Mirjavah and the city continued to suffer from smuggling and economic poverty in the 1970s.

Effective Factors in Foundation and Growth of Modern Educational System in Yazd from the Advent of Constitutionalism upto the End of First Pahlavi Era

Ahmad Babayi zarch; Soheyla Torabifarsani; Mohamad hasan Mirhosaini

Volume 12, Issue 1 , April 2020, , Pages 1-20

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2020.107306.1707

Abstract

Abstract At the threshold of constitutionalism, the place of Iran entered a new phase of change in the political, social, and cultural structure, which was very different from the previous ... Read More Abstract At the threshold of constitutionalism, the place of Iran entered a new phase of change in the political, social, and cultural structure, which was very different from the previous period. The education system is one of the areas that has undergone significant changes during this period and has been transformed from traditional to modern methods. In the city of Yazd, the modern education system of the Qajar period, especially after the Constitution, experienced a growing trend following the wave of modernity in the country. This article seeks to ask what factors provided the grounds for the establishment and growth of the new educational system in Yazd. The paper states that in addition to providing social conditions for constitutionalism, Yazd Zoroastrians should be considered an influential and pioneering group in the way of the development of schools and, as a result, the establishment of a new way of teaching in Yazd. Additionally, other factors should be considered: Yazd’s trade and cultural ties with other European and Asian countries, due to the arrival of Orientalists and missionaries in Yazd; occupational emigration of Zoroastrian to India, followed by financial expansion and the establishment of educational institutions in their hometown; attracting the attention of Indian Persians to the spread of Zoroastrian religious knowledge; efforts of the rich and merchants of Yazd and some of the clergies and non-Zoroastrian religious minorities; the advent of the printing industry, followed by the emergence of newspapers and the exchange of information. Besides, the first steps in education of girls of Yazd, both in Zoroastrian girls’ schools and in missionary schools, were no exception. Introduction In the process of modern schools, Constitutional worked as an accelerator and reflection of public requests. The presence of Christian and Jewish missionaries in Iran was one of the issues that influenced the development of modern schools. This issue caused the preference of trading-economic aspects and also the presence of religious minorities like Jewish and Zoroastrian in this city. They made use of backwardness of education and remedy in cities of Iran, including Yazd, and paved the way to propagation by founding schools and medical centers; nevertheless, they influenced the education. So we can assume that the thought of modern education and the Constitutional Revolution had a mutual relation. Also, in Yazd city, as the Zoroastrian minority were exempted from usual prohibited things for Muslim women, followers of this religion accepted the training of women soon. In 1903 AD, Zoroastrians built the first Zoroastrian girls᾽ school in Yazd. This initiative was arising from the relation of Zoroastrians with their co-religions in India and Europe. Material & Methods Given that there is no independent work in the area of Yazd educational system in the discussed period, in this research, the authors have tried to study and clarify this subject by studying documents, available books, newspapers, journals, and other sources. Discussion of Results & Conclusions In Yazd city, in Pahlavi I period, important schools were built that still exist. Iranshahr, Keikhosravi, and Markar schools were of this kind of school. They give a clear vision of the transition of the traditional educational system to the modern one, explaining how Yazdi people accept modern schools and the extent to which school graduates affect the society or scientific-cultural and social sphere of the country. In the Qajar period, schools of Yazd Muslim citizens, like the whole country, had the same two, old-fashioned primary and religious Islamic schools of early kinds. In 1900, the first modern school of Yazd was built by Moshir al-mamālik Yazdi nearby the Shāh Square. Therefore, for the first time, kids learned. From Constitutional Revolution to Pahlavi I, many factors affected on the tendency of people of Yazd to modern education that some of them are: 1) commercial and cultural relations with other European and Asian countries especially India, 2) the graduates of Dar ul-Funun who worked as early teachers of modern schools, 3) the presence and the role of Zoroastrian religious minorities, 4) efforts of intellectuals, 5) the influence of newspapers and exchange of information, 6) the role of Christian and Jewish missionaries. Although this should be noted that Christian and Jewish missionaries pursued propaganda and other purposes, nevertheless, this kind of activity was effective in the establishment and development of modern schools in Yazd. The modern schools of Yazd that were effective in the formation of mental and thought sphere, social and political transition, and also educative teachings and civil welfare are: Keikhosravi high school: this school was built in 1869. This primary school was instituted eighteen years before Dar ul-funun. It was a primary school for twenty years and became a high school in 1889. Markar school: it was built in 1922 and its girls and boys primary school was established in 1927. Then its high school was instituted in 1934. Iranshahr school: it was the first cultural institution in Yazd that as a high school instituted and presented multiple and complete high school lessons. This high school was the continuation and complementation of the top state school of Yazd. Among the greatest scientific characters who taught in this high school, we can refer to Dr. Qini, the famous Iranian mathematician, Dr. Mohammad Ali Eslami Nodooshan, and Dr. Mohammad Hossein Papoli Yazdi. Izadpeyman girls high school: this was the first girl's school in Yazd, which was built in 1904 for Zoroastrian girls. The development of modern schools in Yazd confronted social, financial, and political problems. The biggest obstacle was the disagreement between traditionalists and some clergies. Families believed that old-fashioned primary school literacy was enough. Before schools became public, some of the families that had no financial ability didn’t let their children go to school. Girls, in the religious society such Yazd, above preventions like sitting in a classroom next to the following of other religions, confronted other preventions like Hijab and the distance from home to school. More importantly, the teaching of non-Muslim teachers wasn’t acceptable. As a result, following the Constitutional Revolution, many schools were built in Yazd and naturally modern schools some disagreements at the beginning, though traditional education besides the modern one, continued for a long time with special purposes. Religious minorities had a key role in the development of modern education in Yazd. Iranian Zoroastrian residents of India and the relation of Zoroastrians of Yazd with them were very effective in the transformation of the educational system. So, more than thirty girls and boys schools were built in Yazd and its suburbs that all of them were supported by the financial assistance of Iranian Zoroastrians who were residents of India. The development of new assets of civilization, such as the telegraph and printing industry, was very influential in transferring information and knowledge. When newspapers emerged, people's need for modern knowledge was reflected more than before. So, the modern educational system was gradually formed in Yazd and developed insofar as education of girls accepted as a necessity. Education of women who are half of the society, therefore, entered a new phase and they were educated in modern schools.

Reflections on Dissolution of Judiciary Administration in the Press of Reza Shah Era (1925-1927)

Moslem Shiyasi; Ghobad Mansourbakht

Volume 12, Issue 1 , April 2020, , Pages 77-94

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2020.120537.1892

Abstract

Abstract The acquaintance of Iranians with the political and judicial systems of Europe (in the 13th century AH / 19 AD) and witnessing the status of the law with their efforts in the ... Read More Abstract The acquaintance of Iranians with the political and judicial systems of Europe (in the 13th century AH / 19 AD) and witnessing the status of the law with their efforts in the constitutional era was fruitful. But the challenge between sharia and custom and the cumbersome rules of capitulation led to the emergence of the idea of judicial reform through a new issue called the dissolution of the beginning and the pursuit of the press and its writing. Assuming the reliance on this article, the majority of them opposed the judiciary by taking common positions. And by expanding public awareness, they made it possible to achieve a new judiciary. The findings of this study, based on the content analysis method, showed that Davar, with the support of Reza Shah, the parliament, and the press, was pursuing two main goals: removing clerics from the judiciary, and renovating of judiciary based on Western civilization. He succeeded in renovating the administrative organization, registering documents and real estate, and drafting civil law. But he was incapable of harmonizing with Islamic jurisprudence. The press was selected for gaining legitimacy, reflection of judicial dissolution, alignment with Reza Shah's projects, and support for Davar, in the context of events and theorizing of judicial modernization and the inadequacy of the limited main resources of this period. Introduction Iran's military defeat of Russia at the turn of the century (13 AH/ 19 AD) and the establishment of a system of capitulation and expansion of relations with Europe and witnessing the civilizational gap, faced the Iranians with a serious problem of backwardness. The solve this problem, the intellectuals of the government appealed to the notion of the rule-based government. Thus, the attempt to change the way of governing with the dynamism of justice led to the Constitutional Revolution, which not only challenged religious beliefs but also led to the emergence of enlightened tyranny by not responding to the demands of the people and insecurity. Davar, with the support of Reza Shah and the press, succeeded in abolishing capitulation as a precondition for the dissolution of the judiciary and its reconstruction. Material and Methods This study is based on the analysis of the content of the speech, which is a repetitive and valid inference from the hidden content of data and communication messages, and a realistic understanding of the text of the widely-read press in agreement with judicial modernization. Using first-hand sources, including books, the memories, and articles in the press of Reza Shah's period, written by officials, press managers, deputies, negotiators, and laws passed by the parliament, the study investigated the dissolution of capitulation, the judiciary, and the press. Discussion and Results The Qajar judicial system, based on custom and law, was ruled by the Shah and Mujtahidin without borders and with abrogated and obsolete rulings in the hands of the people until the first decade of Naserite Period. The first step in judicial reform in Iran began with the trial of Abbas Mirza. Mirza Taghi Khan (AmirKabir) continued this practice by removing torture and removing the impunity from its rulings. The structure of the judiciary was founded by Sepahsalar with the prohibition of unjust punishment and the restriction of the powers of the rulers and the publication of the newspaper Vaqaye Adlieh that led to the weakening of the sharia courts. But the Naseri's dictatorship still lacked justice and law. Until the weakness of Muzaffar al-Din Shah and the increase in the demands of the people led them to the Constitutional Revolution. Familiarity with the laws of progressive nations and the publication of numerous newspapers as well as critical views, the violence of Ayn al-Dawlah and the influence of the British and Ottoman ambassadors persuaded the Shah to issue the constitutional decree. With the establishment of the court of justice, sharia law re-emerged. It was expected that the judiciary would be regulated by the constitution, but the Shah was still active. The intellectuals, by establishing customary principles in the parliament, limited royal authority and challenged custom and sharia. Eventually, this led to a conflict between the Behbahanis and the Ashtianis with Davar, and ended with Behbahanis retreating. Although the process of secularization was pursued in the era of Mushir al-Dawla, the Constitutional Judiciary faced many problems such as inefficiency, ignorance of the people, and incompetence of the members of the parliament because the parliament had taken the place of justice, which was protested by the deputies. It reached the point where they did not obey the judiciary. It was, therefore, necessary for Davar to correct it, which was influenced by European modernism and French and German law. Reza Shah and Davar both sought to reform the judiciary like the European model. Therefore, Davar, with the support of Reza Shah and the approval of special power by the parliament and with the help of the press which was the only new means of communication after the constitution, regularly informed the people about the various news and paved the way for modernization. In favor of foreigners, Davar sought to abolish capitulation, which was a prerequisite for the dissolution of the judiciary. And the press best portrayed the dissatisfaction of the people by criticizing foreigners, capitulation, Qajarism, and traditionalism, as well as defining and praising Davar, that led to the revision of human resources (judges) and the enactment of civil law, which led to the removal of clerics from judicial positions and the severe restriction of sharia courts. Although the clergies’ field of activity was limited to marriages and divorces, a number of influential scholars were able to maintain their position in the new judiciary and not only did they not lose their influence but also their prestige increased. Conclusion Davar with the support of Reza Shah, relying on the press and launching a wave of nationalist sentiments as the most effective tactic, persuaded public opinion and with the insistence of intellectuals and people's demands prepared the grounds for dissolution of the judiciary. He was influenced by Western laws and succeeded in modernizing justice, focusing on human development, drafting civil laws, and restricting the rule of law. But Reza Shah was unsuccessful in creating an efficient, independent, and inactive judiciary. He made expectations for the people that the Pahlavi government was unable to meet.

A Study of Socio-cultural relations of Polish Immigrants with Iranians (1321 -1324 AH / 1942-1945 AD) A Case Study of Isfahan City

Masoume Goodarzi borujerdi; Morteza Nouraei; Abolhassan Fayaz anush

Volume 11, Issue 2 , July 2019, , Pages 1-14

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2018.104890.1156

Abstract

After the invasion of German and Soviet Union to Poland in the course of World War II, half of Polish territory was occupied by Soviet Union and thousands of people deported to labor ... Read More

Analyzing the Challenge of Separation of Powers during Pahlavi II Era Case Study: Interpretation of 82nd Amendment to the Iranian Constitution

Alireza Ali soufi; Mohammad Reza Askarani; Mohammad Reza Sadeghi

Volume 11, Issue 2 , July 2019, , Pages 15-32

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2019.116058.1682

Abstract

The interpretation of principle 82 of the constitutional amendment was one of the challenging resolutions of the Reza Shah era, which, by violating the principle of separation of powers, ... Read More

The Basics of General Food Crisis by the UK in Iran and its Management in the Western Part of Country (1917 - 1918 AD / 1296 – 1297 AH)

meysam saheb; Ali Akbar Kajbaf; morteza dehghannejad

Volume 11, Issue 1 , April 2019, , Pages 19-34

https://doi.org/10.22108/jhr.2018.112286.1488

Abstract

Iranians have frequently faced with famine and crisis of food throughout the history. Over the years, several factors have influenced the crisis of food which, in a general attitude, ... Read More

Volume 14 (2022)

Volume 13 (2021)

Volume 12 (2020)

Volume 11 (2019)

Volume 10 (2018)

Volume 9 (2017)

Volume 8 (2016)

Volume 7 (2015)

Volume 6 (2014)

Volume 5 (2013)

Volume 4 (2012)

Volume 3 (2011)

Volume 2 (2010)

Volume 1 (2009)

Main Subjects = Contemporary history of Iran

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